The Compact Bible Dictionary

by Peter Toon & Herb Schneider

Servant Books, 1987

Contents

Introduction

1. Books of the Bible and Related Literature

2. Personal Names

3. Places, Peoples, and Nations

4. Religion (Cults, Institutions, Parties)

5. Culture and Customs

6. Doctrine

Index (omitted for web)

Introduction

      One of the signs of God’s presence with us and work among us is the growing number of people who are sincerely and seriously reading the sacred Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments.  As we read, we discover that although the Bible is made up of two Testaments and many books, it is a marvelous unity.  Written by a variety of people over ten or more centuries and including history, poetry, letters, treatises, and prophetic oracles, it is nevertheless truly one Book.  What unites all the individual books is that they all point, directly or indirectly to the Lord, Yahweh, whom we confess to be Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.  In fact, we believe that the Holy Spirit guided and inspired the various authors and editors of the books to produce what has been and remains for the church of God a faithful record of God’s revelation of himself, his will and purposes to mankind.

      Thus the Bible is a book that can be read at various levels.  It can be read as a collection of ancient documents giving insight into how people long ago practiced their religion and formed their beliefs.  It can be read as literature to be enjoyed for its good stories and ethical insights.  It can also be read – and this is how Christians particularly read it – as God’s written Word: the Old Testament preparing the way for the Word made flesh, Jesus the Christ, and the New Testament describing his appearance, impact, and mission.  Seen as the written Word of God because witnessing to and testifying of the eternal Word of God (the eternal Son), the Bible becomes a book not merely to be studied carefully but also is to be meditated upon prayerfully.  Studying the text carefully must go hand in hand with meditating upon it prayerfully in the general context of faithful membership of the church and attendance at her services of worship, in order to use the Bible aright and to gain all that it has to offer us.

      The purpose of Bible dictionaries, encyclopedias, lexicons, and concordances is to help us understand the text of Scripture.  However, these sources also include information on the historical, geographical, economic, and cultural context of the books as well as the themes and teachings of individual books or of groups of books found in the two Testaments.  Because we are separated from the original authors and editors of the books by many centuries, we need help to discover as quickly, efficiently, and accurately as possible what really they were seeking to convey to their own readers.

      Obviously great help can be gained from the large and scholarly volumes used by theological students and clergy.  Many of us, however, cannot find time to use such books, even if we felt confident enough to try to do so.  We read the Bible when we have time – traveling to work, in the lunch break, or waiting for a meal.  To help us understand what we read, we often find that we need instant help – usually minimal help – in order to benefit as fully as possible from our reading.  Such help may be, for example, to identify the Pharisees or to discover the names of the kings of Judah or Israel.

      So to accompany our Bible we need a compact dictionary.  We expect from this handbook the basic information needed to help us read the Bible with understanding and thus enabling us to meditate upon its message fruitfully and to put its teaching into practice in our daily lives.  The Compact Bible Dictionary is designed to meet this need.

How to Use It

      Begin by looking in the Index for the topic on which you want information.  Then read the appropriate entries and follow up by reading the Scripture references at the end of each brief entry.  These are meant to enlarge the understanding already gained by digesting the contents of the entries.  If you want to meditate upon one or another of the themes of sacred Scripture and seek to obey our Lord each day, you will find that this Compact Bible Dictionary is excellent.

List of Abbreviations

Books of the Old Testament

Books of the New Testament

ONE

Books of the Bible and Related Literature

Acts of the Apostles.  The second half of the story of which the Gospel of Luke is the first.  The “acts” may be seen as the apostolic ministries of (mainly) Peter and Paul or as the operations of the Holy Spirit through committed disciples of Jesus.  The book covers the first thirty years of Christianity from the Ascension of Jesus and the descent of the Spirit at Pentecost.  Beginning in Jerusalem (ch. 1–7), the movement spread into Judea and Samaria (8–12) and throughout the northern Mediterranean world (13–28).  Originally composed only of Jews, it became a people from both Jewish and non-Jewish (Gentile) backgrounds – a truly international society.                        See also Luke, Gospel of, sec. 1.

Amos, Book of.  An anthology of the oracles of the prophet Amos, who was a shepherd from Tekoa, in the southern kingdom of Judah.  They date from the reign of Jeroboam II (c.786–c.746 B.C.), a period of prosperity and corruption for the northern kingdom of Israel and its capital, Samaria.  The first section (1:1–2:5) contains messages of divine judgment upon Israel’s neighbors for their crimes against humanity.  In the second (2:6–6:14) are messages to Israel of judgment and woe because of its failure to keep God’s covenant in terms of both duty to God and to mankind.  The final section (7–9) contains five symbolic visions of divine threats and promises concerning Israel’s future.   See also Amos, sec. 2.

Apocalyptic Literature (Gk., apocalypsis, “unveiling, revelation”).  Whole books or parts of books within the Bible or Jewish and Christian literature (c. 200 B.C.–A.D.150).  In them imagery, metaphor, and symbolism (often bizarre) are used to communicate secrets concerning such themes as God’s intervention in history, the end of the world, and the future of the wicked and the righteous.  For the OT see Is 24–27, 56–66; Joel; Zec 9–14; and Daniel; for the NT see Mt 24; Mk 13; Lk 21; 1 Thes 4:16–17; 2 Thes 2, and Revelation.

Apocrypha (Gk., “hidden books”).  As used by Protestants, it refers to those books, or parts of books, which were reckoned as OT by the early church (and by the Council of Trent, 1546) but are not in the Hebrew Bible.  Jerome called them “apocrypha,” but the practice of collecting them into a separate unit dates back no further than A.D. 1520.  The fifteen books, or parts of books, are: Tobit; Judith; part of the book of Esther; Wisdom of Solomon; Ecclesiasticus (Sirach); Baruch; the Letter of Jeremiah; the Song of the Three; Daniel and Susanna; Daniel, Bel, and the Dragon; and the First and Second Books of the Maccabees.                               See also Canon, sec. 1.

Apocrypha (NT).  Writings from after A.D. 100 that resemble books within the NT.  There are (1) apocryphal Gospels, claiming to provide extra details about Jesus, e.g., Gospel of the Nazarenes and Gospel of the Hebrews; (2) apocryphal Acts, recounting the travels and miracles of the apostles, e.g., Acts of John, Paul, Peter, and Thomas; (3) apocryphal Epistles, developing privileges of certain churches or contents of doctrines, e.g., Third Epistle to the Corinthians and Epistle to the Laodiceans; and (4) apocalypses concerning the future, e.g., of Peter, Paul, Thomas, Stephen, and John.

Apocrypha (OT).  Writings from c. 200 B.C.–A.D. 200 resembling books within the OT.  Protestants prefer to call them Pseudepigrapha.  The books are of two basic types: of either a Palestinian or a Hellenistic origin.  Examples from the Palestinian context are the Assumption of Moses and the Book of Enoch (both cited in the NT in Jude); and from the Hellenistic context (Jewish communities outside Palestine) are Third and Fourth Maccabees and the Sibylline Oracles.

Aramaic.  The language most widely spoken in Palestine in the time of Jesus.  It is a close cognate rather than a derivative of Hebrew.  Parts of the OT are in Aramaic: Dn 2:4–7:28; Ezr 4:8–6:18, 7:12–26; Jer 10:11.  Targums are Aramaic translations of parts of the Hebrew text of the Bible.  In the NT a few Aramaic words or phrases appear: talitha koum (Mk 5:41), ephphatha (Mk 7:34), and Maranatha (1 Cor 16:22).      See also Hebrew, sec. 1.

Baruch, Book of.  A short OT book ascribed to Baruch, the secretary of Jeremiah the prophet.  Beginning with a prayer of penitence (1:1–3:8) it continues with a poem celebrating the wisdom in the Law of Moses (3:9–4:4) and with songs of comfort (4:5–5:9).  It ends with the Letter of Jeremiah (6:1–73), an attack on idolatry in the form of a letter to the Jewish exiles in Babylon.

      This book is not in the Hebrew canon and thus not in Protestant Bibles.

See Baruch, sec. 2.

Canon (Gk., “rule”).  Since the fourth century, “canon” has denoted an authoritative list of books, inspired by God and belonging to the OT and NT.  The Jewish canon, listing only Hebrew books, is shorter than the OT canon accepted by the Catholic church, because in the latter books extant only in Greek are counted as OT.  These are known as deuterocanonical writings (secondary canon).  Protestants call these extra books the Apocrypha and do not include them in the OT.

      The canon of the NT began to take formal shape around A.D. 200, due primarily to the challenge to orthodoxy from heretical teaching.  For over a century the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles had been circulating among the churches.  The canon reached its final shape of twenty-seven books in the fourth century: in the East in the Thirty-ninth Paschal Letter of Athanasius (367), and in the West by the Council of Carthage in 397.

Catholic Epistles.  The Letters of James, Peter (2), John (3), and Jude are so called because they were addressed to a wider group than one local church congregation.

Chronicles, First and Second Books of.  These tell the story of Israel from the beginning of the monarchy under Saul to the return from exile in Babylon, a period of five centuries.  The contents fall into four parts. (1) Genealogical tables (1 Chr 1–9) tracing the line of descent from Adam to those who returned from Exile; (2) the acts of David (1 Chr 10–29); (3) the acts of Solomon (2 Chr 1–9); and (4) the history of Judah from the rebellion of the northern tribes to the Exile (2 Chr 10–36).  The story is continued in the book of Ezra.

      In the choice and treatment of material, these books have specific emphases: concern for and commitment to faithful worship; Judah as the leader of the twelve tribes; and the need for trusting obedience of God.  Thus these books are not inferior to 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings, but take a different approach to history.  They are less political and more ecclesiastical or theological in tone.  The date of their composition is uncertain, probably between 537 and 331 B.C.

Colossians, Epistle of Paul to the.  Although he had not founded the church in Colossae, Paul had heard of it from Epaphras.  While there was much in its life and witness for which to thank God, there was also cause for concern because of false teaching.  The latter came in the form of a fusion of Christian teaching with Gnosticism (of a Jewish variety).  So from his house arrest in Rome in A.D. 60–61 the apostle addressed the church.  He insisted that Jesus Christ is the Creator and Lord and thus above all powers or spirits in the universe; in him is revealed God’s true wisdom, and the way of holiness is not via false asceticism and outward observances in matters of food and drink but by essential union with Jesus in his death, resurrection, and exaltation.                              See Colossae, sec. 3.

Corinthians, First and Second Epistles of Paul to the.  Having founded the church in the cosmopolitan city of Corinth, he wrote his first letter after he had met a delegation from it in Ephesus in A.D. 54.  They reported urgent problems needing solution.  He took up four matters: divisions within the congregation, court cases between members, misuse and abuse of Christian freedom, and lack of discipline in some services of worship.  Further he responded to five questions from the church: on marriage and celibacy, on food that came from sacrifices offered to idols, on the place of women in the congregation, on spiritual gifts, and on the resurrection of the body.  Chapter 13, a celebration of love, is one of the great chapters of the Bible.

      A year or two later Paul wrote what is called the Second Epistle.  However, before writing it he made a short, “painful” visit and wrote a letter in anguish to the church.  This lost letter had a positive effect and when Paul received this news he wrote 2 Corinthians.  Its intensely personal character with recurring themes makes it difficult to analyze.  It provides, however, tremendous insight into Paul’s ministry, suffering, faith, and care for the churches.                   See Corinth, sec. 3.

Daniel, Book of.  This OT book of prophecy falls into two parts.  Chapters 1–6 are basically historical in content: the writer, Daniel, speaking in the third person.  He is taken from his homeland, Judah, to Babylon.  Here he is seen serving various kings and interpreting their dreams.  In chapters 7–12 Daniel speaks in the first person as he receives from God dreams whose content relates to the destiny of Israel in the context of the heathen Gentile kingdoms.

      Modern critical scholarship is nearly unanimous in its rejection of the traditional view that the book was actually composed by Daniel.  Instead of a sixth-century date, it is claimed that the work was composed during the persecution of Jews by Antiochus Epiphanes (167–164 B.C.) by an unknown author who used Daniel’s name to give his message of comfort an added authority.

      The episodes of Susanna and of Bel and the Dragon (ch. 13–14) are found only in the Greek version of Daniel, and thus are classified as apocrypha in Protestant Bibles.

See Daniel, sec. 2.

Dead Sea Scrolls.  The popular name given to manuscripts found in caves west of the Dead Sea since 1947.  They belonged to a religious community of Jews at Qumran and were hidden in A.D. 68 when the Roman army moved against rebel Jews.  Written in both Aramaic and Hebrew, they provide important information about Jewish religious life in the period of Jesus and the birth of the church.  They also give important insights into the transmission of the text of the OT.

Deuteronomy, Book of (Gk., “second law”).  The fifth book of Moses and thus the last of the Pentateuch.  It is called a “second law” because it contains a fresh statement of the laws God previously gave at Mount Sinai (recorded in Ex, Lv, and Nm): here they are applied to the forthcoming settled life in Canaan as Moses gives his farewell addresses to Israel on the plains of Moab, on the eve of entry into the promised land.  The book falls into three sections: (1) 1:1–4:43, Moses’ first address; (2) 4:44–28:68, his second address; (3) 29:1–30:20, his third address; and (4) the last acts of Moses before his death.

      Traditionally it has been assumed that Moses is the effective author of this book; but modern scholarship, while accepting that much of the material goes back to Moses, argues that it was composed several centuries after the Israelites had been settled in Canaan.  Jesus quoted from this book in his testing by Satan in the wilderness (Mt 3).                 See also Pentateuch, sec. 1.

Ecclesiastes, Book of.  This title is the Greek translation of Qoheleth, the Hebrew for “preacher” or “teacher” and points to the author’s official title rather than to his name.  It presents a popular form of religious writing in near eastern countries in OT times.  Reflections on life from a variety of angles are given in prose and in verse aphorisms.  It takes its place in the Bible because the author teaches that only by faith in God can one gain the key to human life.  Without God its enigma cannot be solved, but with him life can have true joy and satisfaction.  Thus the last word of the book is: “Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is man’s all.”

      The identity of the author is unknown.  If king Solomon was the original writer, its language was later modernized, for it reflects c. 200 B.C.

See Wisdom Literature, sec. 1.

Ephesians, Epistle of Paul to the.  It would appear that this letter, written by Paul from prison in Rome (A.D. 61–63), was intended as a circular letter to a group of churches, including Ephesus.  The reason for this view is that it contains no personal greetings and has no reference to specific problems or joys in the church of Ephesus: then, also, the words “at Ephesus” (1:1) are missing in some early Greek manuscripts.

      It contains a rich and high theology of the marvelous eternal purpose of God in Jesus Christ, followed by an urgent exhortation to live worthily in the light and strength of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus.                 See Ephesus, sec. 3.

Epistle, Letter.  In the NT, twenty-one books are called epistles or letters; they display a variety of literary forms.  There are thirteen under Paul’s name, one anonymous “To the Hebrews,” two under Peter’s name, three under John’s, and one under Jude’s.  All were written in the second half of the first century and represent the only source for knowledge of what the apostles believed, taught, and confessed.

      The most personal is Paul’s Letter to Philemon and the most artistic and literary is the Letter to the Hebrews.  Of Paul’s letters the first to be written were those to Galatia and Thessalonica, around A.D. 50.  Ephesians, Colossians, Philemon, and Philippians are called Prison Letters (Captivity Epistles) because all were written from prison in Ephesus or Rome.  The Pastoral Epistles are 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus.  The terms General Letters or Catholic Epistles are used of 1 and 2 Peter; 1, 2, and 3 John; James; and Jude.

Esther, Book of.  Named after its Jewish heroine, Esther, queen of the Persian king, Xerxes (Ahasuerus).  It tells the story of how she was able to save the Jewish community from massacre.  Further, it explains the origin of the feast of Purim.

      In Jewish tradition Mordecai, Esther’s adoptive father, is regarded as the author of the original Hebrew text: the latter does not use the name of God but contains a doctrine of divine providence.  The longer Greek text, with an extra 107 verses, does use God’s name: it dates from c. 114 B.C.                        See Esther, sec. 2, and Feasts, sec. 4.

Exodus, Book of (Gk., exodos, “going out”).  The second Book of Moses in the Pentateuch.  It records the deliverance of Israel from Egypt and the giving of the Law.  The contents are: (1) the Israelites in Egypt, an oppressed people (1:1–12:36); (2) deliverance from Egypt and journey to Mount Sinai (12:37–18:27); (3) making of the Covenant between God and Israel (19:1–24:18); and (4) the Tabernacle, God’s dwelling, and its furnishings (25:1–40:38).

See Pentateuch, sec. 1.

Ezekiel, Book of.  The prophecies are arranged in roughly chronological order and dated according to the year of king Jehoiachin’s captivity by the Babylonians (from 597 to at least 562 B.C.).  The prophet himself was also taken as captive into Babylon and there he prophesied.  The oracles are in three divisions: (1) those delivered before the capture of Jerusalem, foretelling its overthrow (1–24); (2) those addressed to various nations, announcing the divine judgment (25–32); (3) those promising restoration of Israel, its land, and its Temple (33–48).  Throughout the book there is a majestic doctrine of God who has zeal for his own holy name.              See Ezekiel, sec. 2.

Ezra, Book of.  The continuation of the narrative of 1 and 2 Chronicles, providing an account of the return of Jews from Exile between 538 and 433 B.C.  In chapters 1–6 there is a narrative of the return under Sheshbazzar in 538 with the restoration of divine service and the rebuilding of the Temple.  Chapters 7–10 present the return of another group of exiles under Ezra in 458 and of his successful attempts to bring a halt to the intermarriage of Jews with foreigners.

      In this book are copies of public records and official documents, written in Aramaic (the language of international commerce and diplomacy).  In the Hebrew Bible, Ezra and Nehemiah are counted as one book.  In composition, they belong to the same period as 1 and 2 Chronicles.

      The Vulgate divides Ezra-Nehemiah, calling the former the First Book of Esdras and the latter the Second Book of Esdras.                     See Nehemiah, Book of, sec. 1 and Ezra, sec. 2.

Galatians, Epistle of Paul to the.  Written by the apostle with a great sense of urgency and passion to set aside the false teaching of the Judaizers.  They had cast doubts on Paul’s apostolic status and taught the necessity of conformity to minimal Judaism by Gentile Christians.  In response, Paul sought to make clear the nature of salvation by the grace of God, arguing that for Gentiles this does not mean conformity to Judaism.  The apostle’s doctrine is stated in a larger format in his Epistle to the Romans.

      Since “Galatia” was used of two areas in what is now Turkey (ethnic Galatia and the Roman province of Galatia) it is not absolutely clear to which area the letter originally went.  If it was to the Roman province then it was to the churches of Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe (Acts 13:14–14:23) but if to ethnic Galatia, then to churches in the area mentioned in Acts 16:6 and 18:23.                                    See Galatia, sec. 3.

Genesis, the Book of (Gk.,genesis, “beginning”).  The book of beginnings – the first Book of Moses and of the Pentateuch, telling of the making of the universe, the creation of mankind, the origins of sin, and the election by God of a people.  The contents may be divided as follows: (1) prehistory or primeval history (1:1–11:26); (2) Abraham (11:27–25:18); (3) Isaac and Jacob (25:19–36:43); and (4) Joseph and his brothers (37:1–50:26).

      Though chapters 1–11 are not scientific history, they are very important for their symbolic presentation of important truths about God and his creation.

See Pentateuch and Creation, sec. 6.

Gospels.  There is no biography of Jesus; the four Gospels, although containing biographical information and making use of authentic eyewitness testimony, are booklets of a unique literary genre.  Their basic purpose is to present the good news from God concerning the life, teaching, death, and resurrection of Jesus, the Messiah.  They are designed to encourage their readers to believe in Jesus and gain eternal life from God.

      It was at least thirty years after the Ascension that the first Gospel, Mark’s, appeared.  Until that time, as well as after it, material concerning Jesus was carefully preserved in the churches and passed on both in written form and by word of mouth.

      The first three Gospels (Mt, Mk, and Lk) have been called the Synoptic Gospels since 1774 because they lend themselves to study by their texts being placed in parallel columns to show coincidences.                     See Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, Gospels of.

Greek.  The NT books are all in common Greek (koine), which was widely spoken in the Roman Empire.  After the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek came to be widely used, and this usage continued when the Roman replaced the Greek empire.  By the time of the NT, Latin was beginning to make an impact on this Greek, especially on vocabulary, e.g., the word kentyrion (centurion).  It is also possible to discern in the Greek of some NT books the influence of Hebrew or Aramaic, especially in the Revelation of John.

Habakkuk, Book of.  The collection of prophecies usually dated shortly after the battle of Carchemish (605 B.C.).  Here the Egyptians were defeated, allowing the Chaldeans to march east where eventually Nebuchadnezzar invaded Judah and captured Jerusalem (597 B.C.).  Habakkuk, about whom virtually nothing is known, addressed himself to the moral problem of God causing a cruel and barbarous Chaldean army to be the means of his judgment upon his elect people (Jews) and their land (Judah).  Chapters 1–2 consist of a dialogue between the prophet and God, while chapter 3 is a wonderful lyrical prayer, ending in joyful confidence in God.                            See Habakkuk, sec. 2.

Haggai, Book of.  Having returned from Exile, Haggai delivered these oracles between August and December, 520 B.C.  They were delivered in Jerusalem at a time when the returned exiles were discouraged in their work of rebuilding God’s house, the Temple, but yet were living in their own houses.  They contain a message of encouragement and hope.

See Haggai, sec. 2

Hebrew.  Member of the western group of Semitic languages.  Abraham learned it when he settled in Canaan.  Within the OT it is called the “language of Canaan” (Is 19:18) or the “language of Judah” (Is 36:11).  It was spoken until the Exile (597 B.C.) but was then replaced as the vernacular by Aramaic.  However, Hebrew has remained as the classical language of Scripture and of Judaism to this day.  Jesus was familiar with it through the synagogue, but he spoke Aramaic in daily life.  It is written from right to left.

      Modern Hebrew, the language of the State of Israel, is derived from classical Hebrew.

Hebrews, Epistle to the.  The author of this work, which is more like a short treatise or exhortation than a letter, is not known.  He appears to have been a Greek-speaking Jewish Christian leader who wrote before A.D. 96 to fellow Jews – hence the title, “to the Hebrews.”  His readers were being pressured to return to Judaism and thus he sought to strengthen them in their faith in Jesus, the Messiah.  He presented the Christianity of the new covenant as the completion and goal of the Judaism of the old covenant.

      Written in a polished style, the letter presents the superiority of Christianity to all previous and possible revelation, unfolds the value and implications of Christ’s unique high priesthood, and urges the readers to live by this superlative faith with a renewed confidence in Jesus, the same yesterday, today, and forever.

Hosea, Book of.  Prophecies delivered in the northern kingdom of Israel over thirty years, from a point in the reign of Jeroboam II (786–746 B.C.) until just before the fall of the capital, Samaria, in 722 B.C.  It was a period of apostasy, infidelity to God’s covenant; oppression of the poor by the rich and powerful, and threat of invasion by Assyria.

      Hosea portrayed Israel as an adulterous, faithless wife whom the Lord, because of his love for her, could not give up (1–3).  In reality Israel had gone over to the worship of Baal, the Caananite deity.  In chapters 4–14 Israel’s guilt and punishment is portrayed and the call is given.  “Return, O Israel, to the Lord, your God” who is the God of love.

See Hosea, sec. 2, and Baal, sec. 4.

Isaiah, Book of.  This long book falls into four sections.  Chapters 1–35 contain oracles addressed to the people of Judah, 742–687 B.C.; 36–39 are a historical appendix, almost identical to 2 Kgs 18–20; 40–55, sometimes called DeuteroIsaiah, contain oracles which presuppose the exile in Babylon in the sixth century and foretell liberation and the restoration of Jerusalem; and 56–66, sometimes called TritoIsaiah, contain a variety of oracles, some quite majestic.

      Most scholars hold that the prophet Isaiah, whose call is in chapter 6, is responsible for virtually all of the oracles in 1–35; but, since chapters 40–55 presuppose the Exile, which occurred a century after Isaiah’s time, they believe that another prophet, whose name is unknown, delivered these oracles from “the holy One of Israel.”  Chapters 56–66 are said to be either from the unknown prophet responsible for 40–55 or another anonymous prophet.  In addition, chapters 24–27, known as the Apocalypse of Isaiah, are probably from a period later than the original prophet.

      Jewish tradition considers one prophet the author of the whole book, including those parts assigned by modern scholarship to other anonymous prophets.  It is indeed possible that God could have revealed the events, problems, and language of the future to an eighth-century prophet.  Nevertheless, the hypothesis of at least two authors is convincing in view of the textual evidence and of the ancient habit of collecting related work from various periods under a well-known name.

      Questions of authorship should not detract from the majestic quality of the contents of this book.                     See Isaiah, sec. 2.

Jeremiah, Book of.  These prophecies were delivered in Judah between 626 and 587 B.C. during the reign of five kings from Josiah to Zedekiah.  They are in three sections: (1) prediction of the approaching judgment on Judah and the promise of restoration after exile (2–33); (2) the execution of this judgment and the fall of Jerusalem (34–44); and (3) predictions concerning foreign nations (46–51).

      The oracles are not presented in historical sequence, so the chapters may be arranged in terms of the five reigns: (1) Josiah, chapters 1–20 (except 12:7–13:27); (2) Jehoahaz – nothing; (3) Jehoiakim, chapters 26, 22–23, 25, 35–36, 45, 33, and 12:7–13:27; (4) Jehoiachin, chapters 13:18–19, 20:24–30, and 52:31–34; (5) Zedekiah, chapters 24, 29, 27–28, 51:59–60 and 30–33, 21, 34, 37–39.  Chapters 40–44 were delivered after the fall of Jerusalem and 46–51 refer to other nations.

      Jeremiah prophesied that God would make a new covenant with his people (24:7; 31:33–34; 32:39–40) and would send the Messiah (23:5–8; 30:4–11; 33:14–26).

See Jeremiah, sec. 2.

Job, Book of.  One of the great works of poetry in the world.  It cannot be placed exclusively in any one literary type, either epic, dramatic, didactic, or reflective.  This said, it is usually classified as part of Jewish wisdom literature.  It deals with the question, why does the righteous man suffer in a world whose judge is himself the holy and righteous Lord?  Job, a prosperous and good man, loses possessions and family and catches a horrible disease.  Why does such a thing happen in God’s world?  Job comes to see that God’s ways can never be wholly understood or justified by mere mortals and he realizes that suffering is not always judgment from God, for it can be the chastisement of a loving Father.

      Since it contains no definite historical clues, it cannot be precisely dated further, and its author is unknown.                                See Wisdom Literature, sec. 1 and Job, sec. 2.

Joel, Book of.  Four topics are covered in this short prophecy.  (1) The devastation caused by plagues of locusts, pointing to divine judgment; (2) God’s blessings on the land when the people repent; (3) the future outpouring of the Holy Spirit; and (4) final judgment upon the nations and salvation for God’s elect.  The oracle concerning the Holy Spirit was fulfilled on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2).

      The date of the book could be as early as the eighth and as late as the fourth century B.C.  All we know of Joel is that he was Pethuel’s son.                            See Joel, sec. 2

John, Gospel of.  Written probably after the other three Gospels with the specific aim of bringing its readers to belief in Jesus as the Messiah and to receive through him eternal life from God.  It is basically a sophisticated evangelistic booklet, whose aim is to present the words and deeds of Jesus in such a manner as to reveal his true identity – Son of God become Man.

      The contents fall into three parts: (1) the revelation of Jesus, Son of God, to the world (1–12); (2) the revelation of Jesus to the disciples (13–17); and (3) the glorification of Jesus in death and resurrection (18–21).

      As to authorship, the traditional view is that it was written by John the apostle, probably assisted by an amanuensis, about A.D. 90.  Another suggestion is that it was written by a disciple of the apostle using the information gained from the apostle.

See Gospels, sec. 1 and John, sec. 2.

John, First, Second, and Third Epistles of.  While the first is like a theological tract, the second and third are real letters.  The style and content of the first is so like that of the Gospel of John that it must have the same author.  It was written to combat false teaching concerning the identity of Jesus and the nature of sin against God; it shows how integrated are right doctrine and right conduct.

      The other two letters are written by one who calls himself “the Elder,” a title suggesting age, authority, and respect.  Thus it is likely that they come from the apostle, one being addressed to a specific church and the other to an individual.                       See John, sec. 2.

Jonah, Book of.  Prophecy in the form of a story.  Chapter 1 tells how Jonah went in the opposite direction to God’s call.  He was thrown overboard in a storm.  Chapter 2 gives the text of a prayer he offered from inside the belly of the great fish which swallowed him.  Chapter 3 describes how, being disgorged by the fish on the shore, he went to Nineveh to preach God’s message there.  It may be taken as historical (history with a moral) or as a parable in historical form.  Its theme is that God’s love extends beyond Israel to the whole world.                See Jonah, sec. 2 and Nineveh, sec. 3.

Joshua, Book of.  The story of the invasion (c. 1240 B.C.), conquest and division of the land of Canaan by the Israelites under Joshua, Moses’ successor.  It is the history of Israel from the death of Moses to that of Joshua, and it demonstrated God’s faithfulness in giving to the descendants of Abraham, the land he had promised to him as an inheritance.

      In the Hebrew Bible, this book is the first of the Former Prophets, which tell of Israel’s history from the entry into Canaan to the Exile in Babylon.  Scholars find this book impossible to date because of its many different editings.                  See Joshua, sec. 2.

Jude, Epistle of.  A brief letter written by Jude, a close relative of Jesus.  It was addressed to a Christian community harrassed by false, arrogant teachers, advocating an exaggerated form of freedom.  The elderly Jude urges the faithful to build upon the body of truth they have been given and to live as those who expect the return of Christ as judge.

      In vv. 14–15 there is a quotation from the apocryphal Book of Enoch while the story in v. 9 comes from the apocryphal Assumption of Moses.

See Apocrypha (OT), sec. 1 and Jude, sec. 2.

Judges, Book of.  The story of Israel’s experience in Canaan from the death of Joshua to the rise of Samuel (c. 1220–1050 B.C.).  Its title comes from the name of “judge” given to the twelve military leaders, who were inspired by God to save the Israelites from idolatry and external dangers.  The narrative reveals the tendency towards sin present even in decent, religious people as it tells of the continuing cycle of desertion of the covenant, of God, and of his worship for the service of the local Canaanite deities.  God’s salvation is set forth in his response to the cry of his people when they reaped the fruit of their apostasy: he sent the “judges” to deliver them.

Judith, Book of.  Not in the Hebrew Bible.  The fictitious story, set in the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, of how a small Jewish town resisted the power of a heathen army because it was inspired by the example of a devout widow, Judith.  It was probably written c. 150–125 B.C. at the time of the Maccabean revolt with the aim of strengthening the commitment of the Jewish people both to their God and to religious duties.  The high points of the book are the speeches by Achior and the prayers and speeches of Judith.  The beautiful hymn of the people blessing Judith (15:9–10) has often been applied to the Virgin Mary in the liturgy.

Kings, First and Second Books of.  These two books continue the history provided by 1 and 2 Samuel.  They form a continuous narrative covering four centuries of the history of Israel, from the close of David’s reign to the fall of Samaria (722 B.C.) and Jerusalem (587 B.C.).  Beginning with a stable, united kingdom, the story ends with destruction and deportation to Babylon.  The contents are (1) the reign of Solomon (1 Kgs 1–11); (2) the divided kingdom (making Israel and Judah – 1 Kgs 12–2 Kgs 17) and (3) the kingdom of Judah (2 Kgs 18–25).

      The religious purpose of the books is to review the history leading up to the Exile in order to explain why divine judgment occurred, and to point to a better way for the future.  The whole work was probably composed by a “prophetic writer” during the exile in Babylon; it makes use of various written sources (“the book of the acts of Solomon,” 1 Kgs 11:41 and “the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel,” 1 Kgs 14:19).

Lamentations, Book of.  The theme of the five elegies or mournful poems in this book is the capture and destruction of Jerusalem, with the terrible suffering of those events.  Traditionally they are attributed to the prophet Jeremiah.  The first, second, fourth, and fifth each have twenty-two verses, and each verse of 1, 3, and 4 begins with a different letter of the Hebrew alphabet (which has 22 letters); the fifth does not have an alphabetical arrangement.  The third has sixty-six verses divided into twenty-two parts, each part starting with a different Hebrew letter.  Thus 1–4 are acrostic.  These poems are read in Jewish synagogues each July to recall the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem in 587 B.C. and A.D. 70.

Leviticus, Book of.  The third book of Moses in the Pentateuch.  The title “relating to the Levites” derives from the Septuagint.  Its theme is expressed in the words: “I, the Lord, am your God; you shall make and keep yourselves holy, because I am holy” (11:44; 19:2).  God’s holiness is his unique, majestic purity: however, that which is set apart for his worship and service is also called holy, in a derivative sense.  The law, rules, and regulations of this book (given through divine revelation to Moses and Aaron) regulate access to God and so promote holiness at the human level.  The narrative sections, continuing from the book of Exodus, relate Israel’s experiences at Mount Sinai.

See Levites, sec. 4.

Luke, Gospel of.  The first part of a two-part treatise (Luke–Acts) on the origins of the Christian faith, addressed to Theophilus, a Gentile Christian.  It was written by Luke, a physician and a friend and colleague of Paul (Col 4:14).  He appears to have used about half of Mark’s Gospel, together with other sources, to write this Gospel.  He presents Jesus as the Christ for outsiders (i.e., non-Jews) and outcasts (Samaritans, tax collectors, prostitutes, etc.) as well as for insiders (Pharisees and ordinary Jews).  Therefore Jesus is the universal Christ and as the Christ he was not only conceived by the Holy Spirit but filled with the Spirit to accomplish the work of the Messiah.  Further, he was innocent of all political charges brought against him (a point that Gentiles needed to know) by his enemies.

See Gospels, Acts, sec. 1 and Luke, sec. 2.

Maccabees, First and Second Books of.  Part of the OT for Roman Catholics but not in the Hebrew (Jewish) Bible and not regarded as Scripture by Protestants.  They provide important information about and insight into the suppression of Judaism by the Greek Empire in the second century B.C.

      First Maccabees was written about 100 B.C. and is a historical work of great value, providing an account of the Jewish war of independence under the Maccabee family of Levites.  Written originally in Hebrew, it survived only in Greek translation.  It begins with the accession of the Greek king, Antiochus IV (175 B.C.) and closes with the death of Simon Maccabee (134 B.C.).

      Second Maccabees is not a sequel to 1 Maccabees and is by a different author.  It covers events from 180–161 B.C. and provides a theological interpretation of them.  In terms of the development of doctrine, the teaching on the resurrection of the righteous at the Last Day, the intercession of the saints in heaven for pilgrims on earth, and the power of the living to offer sacrifices and prayers for the dead are very important.

See Maccabee, sec. 2.

Malachi, Book of.  The last book of the OT: it provides insights into the life of the Jewish community, recently returned to Jerusalem from Exile.  The oracles were delivered just before the arrival of Ezra (458 B.C.) but at a time when the new Temple was standing and sacrifices were being offered.  Thus the prophecy belongs to the period after the work of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah.  Malachi (Heb., “my messenger”) rebuked the people in God’s name for their failure to set and maintain high standards in worship and morality: further, he spoke of the coming great “day of the Lord.”              See Malachi, sec. 2.

Mark, Gospel of.  The shortest and earliest of the four Gospels, written between A.D. 64 and 70.  It begins with the ministry of John the Baptist and concludes with the departure of the women from the empty tomb.  There is more emphasis on the actions than the activity of Jesus, and he is presented as preeminently the crucified Messiah.  The Gospel may be called a Passion narrative with an extended introduction and brief epilogue.

      There is no sound reason to doubt the ancient tradition that John Mark is the author and that he gathered much of his material from the apostle Peter.  The ending 16:9–20 is canonical but not originally part of the text of this Gospel.

See Gospels, sec. 1 and Mark, sec. 2.

Matthew, Gospel of.  A significant and enlarged revision of the Gospel of Mark, using 90 percent of the latter.  Additions include the infancy narratives, the teaching of Jesus in five sections, and accounts of the resurrected Jesus.  Jesus is presented as preeminently the teaching Christ ( see chapters 5–7, 10, 13, 18, 24–25 and 28:19); further he is the Jewish Messiah (Christ), descended from king David, and whose life, in its details, fulfills specific OT prophecies.

      Though tradition makes Matthew, the apostle, the author, it is very difficult for us to accept this in the light of the heavy dependence upon Mark.  Possibly the writer gained some of his extra material from Matthew and so gave his name to it.

See Gospels, sec. 1 and Matthew, sec. 2.

Micah, Book of.  Prophecies from the reign of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (742–687 B.C.) addressed to the two cities, Jerusalem and Samaria.  Micah was a contemporary of Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah, and like them he expected God to use a pagan nation to punish his faithless covenant people.  The contents are both condemnation and hope: Israel’s punishment and later restoration.  The famous oracle about Bethlehem, birthplace of the Messiah, is in chapter 5.                          See Micah, sec. 2.

Nahum, Book of.  Prophecies delivered after 663 (the fall of Thebes to Assyria) and before 612 B.C. (the fall of Nineveh to the Babylonians and Medes).  They contain a message of doom for Nineveh, capital of Assyria.  The God of Israel, despised by the Assyrians, is the Lord and Judge of the nations, and he will punish this empire and its hated capital city.  This book stands in contrast to that of Jonah which (for a different historical period) portrays hope and salvation for Nineveh: Nahum (meaning comfort or compassion) lived in southwestern Judah but nothing is known of him.              See Nineveh, sec. 3.

Nehemiah, Book of.  Together with the book of Ezra this provides us with the story of the return of the exiles from Babylon under Ezra in 458 and under Nehemiah in 445 B.C.  The contents fall into 3 parts: Nehemiah’s return and work as governor (1:1–7:73a); Ezra’s work as reformer (7:73b–9:37, a continuation of Ezr 7–10); and Nehemiah’s reforms and community (9:38–13:31).              See Ezra, Book of, sec. 1 and Nehemiah, sec. 2.

New Testament.  A collection of twenty-seven books forming the second half of the Christian Bible.  Written originally in Greek, it is received by the church as canon because it declares and sets forth the new covenant (testament), brought into being by the atoning death of Jesus, the Messiah.  So the NT stands in contrast to and fulfillment of the OT, the book of the old covenant.

      The original manuscripts of the NT are no longer extant; the most ancient text containing all twenty-seven books is called Sinaiticus, dating from the fourth century.  However, around 5,000 ancient manuscripts containing all or part of the NT exist.  By studying these scholars seek to establish the original text.

      The division of the NT into chapters was made by Stephen Langton (d. 1228) and into verses by Robert Stephanus in 1551.                            See Old Testament, sec. 1.

Numbers, Book of.  The fourth book of Moses in the Pentateuch.  In Hebrew it is called “In the Wilderness” but the English title derives from the censuses of the Israelites mentioned in chapters 1–4 and 26.  The contents relate to thirty-eight years in the wilderness, wandering in the Sinai peninsula.  The book begins with the ending of the encampment at Mount Sinai, two years after the Exodus, and ends with the arrival at the border of Canaan, forty years after the Exodus.  It is a story of complaining and discontent by the people and of punishment from God.                             See Pentateuch, sec. 1.

Obadiah, Book of.  In its one chapter the destruction of Edom is foretold.  The reason for this divine judgment upon the descendants of Esau is their treatment of the Israelites.  They are told not to gloat over the distress of the people of Judah (being invaded by the Babylonians).  This brief prophecy arises from the great theme of several prophets – the coming of “the day of the Lord,” the day of judgment and deliverance.  It is to be dated after 587 B.C.; nothing is known of Obadiah.                              See Edom, sec. 3.

Old Testament.  The first part of the Christian Bible, being a collection of forty-six books, received by the church as canon.  The title comes from 2 Cor 3:14, “when the old covenant is read.”  Thirty-nine of the books were written in Hebrew and form the Hebrew Bible (Jewish canon) as fixed by the rabbis at Jamnia in about A.D. 100.  The other seven exist only in Greek and are received by the Catholic church as canonical.  The whole collection sets forth and explains the old covenant and leads the reader to expect the new covenant.  The division into chapters and verses began in the sixteenth century.

      Without the OT the NT would be a collection of books without background, context, and clarity of meaning.  Thus the OT, telling of the long preparation for the Messiah, is read as sacred Scripture within the church.                                    See New Testament, sec. 1.

Papyrus.  The writing material prepared from a large aquatic plant of the sedge family.  The discovery of Greek papyri in Egypt over the last century has helped us to see that the Greek of the NT belonged to the general (koine) Greek of the period.  Further, although they do not survive, the original documents of the NT were all written on papyrus rolls or sheets.

Pentateuch (Gk., “the book in five”).  The five books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, called Torah or “Book of the Law” in Judaism and “Law” in the NT.  The five contain not only the detailed contents of the covenant God made through Moses with Israel but also the context of that covenant – the choice of Abraham and his descendants as God’s elect people.  Moses is held in Jewish tradition to be the primary author; thus “the five books of Moses.”  Modern scholarship, while accepting the Mosaic origin of much of the material, has looked for various strands of material (possibly documents) underlying the Pentateuch and being used by the final editors.

      Four great themes are prominent in the five books: (1) Election (God’s choice of a people for himself); (2) Covenant: God’s relationship with Noah (Gn 9:9); with Abraham (Gn 15:18); and with Israel (Ex 24:7); (3) Law (in the covenant with Israel); and (4) Exodus (deliverance from Egypt and into the promised land).

Peter, First and Second Epistles of.  The apostle Peter wrote 1 Peter from Rome before A.D. 64 (when the persecution under Nero began) to small, scattered churches in the five Roman provinces north of the Taurus mountains (in modern Turkey).  The letter deals with the gift of God’s salvation in Christ and its implication, the need for good behavior by all Christians and for readiness to suffer for Christ’s sake.  The key theme is hope.

      Second Peter was possibly written much later than 1 Peter, either by Peter or (more probably) by a disciple.  The key theme is true knowledge in order to combat false teaching, especially in relation to the second coming of Christ.  It has the character of a farewell message, but we do not know to whom it was originally addressed.

See Peter, sec. 2.

Philemon, Epistle of Paul to.  A private letter to Philemon, a member of the church in Colossae.  It concerns one of his slaves, Onesimus, who had run away to Rome only there to encounter Paul and become a Christian.  Paul, who had come to love Onesimus, asked Philemon to receive him not merely as his returned slave but as a brother in Christ – a revolutionary idea at that time.  The letter was probably sent with the Letter to the Colossians in A.D. 60–61.                            See Philemon, sec. 2 and Slavery, sec. 5.

Philippians, Epistle of Paul to the.  Having founded the church in Philippi in A.D. 50 (Acts 16:12ff), Paul wrote from prison (probably Ephesus A.D. 54, but possibly Rome A.D. 61–63), rejoicing in his suffering and commending his colleagues, Timothy and Epaphroditus.  He also wanted to thank the Philippians for a gift they had sent him, to seek to heal the divisions that had arisen in the membership, and to help them face trial by standing fast in the faith of Christ.  The poem in celebration of the Incarnation in 2:5–11 is a high point in the letter.                                See Philippi, sec. 3.

Prophets, Former and Latter.  In the Hebrew Bible the order of the books after the Pentateuch (Torah) is the Former Prophets (Jos, Jgs, 1 and 2 Sm, 1 and 2 Kgs,) followed by the Latter Prophets (Is, Jer, Ez, and the book of the twelve minor prophets from Hos to Mal).  The use of “former” was not continued in the Septuagint and Vulgate.

Proverbs, Book of.  An anthology of poetry on practical piety: a textbook of wisdom for the young and all who wish to learn.  Wisdom is based on “the fear of the Lord” – reverence for and obedience to God.  Proverbs are generalizations, stating what is generally (not absolutely or invariably) true.

      King Solomon’s name appears in the full title and he was directly or indirectly responsible for two collections (10:1–22:16; 25:1–29:27).  The book was, however, compiled after his reign and contains material from other wise men.

See Wisdom Literature, sec. 1.

Psalms, Book of.  The hymnbook of the OT and made up of five books: 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150.  Each of these ends with a short doxology and the five end with the full doxology of Psalm 150.  The heading of each psalm presents ancient Jewish tradition concerning that psalm but is not part of the original text.

      This hymnbook of the Second Temple contains hymns from all periods, being compiled from earlier collections, including one ascribed to King David (containing seventy–three psalms), one used by the sons of Korah (eleven psalms), and one arranged by Asaph (twelve psalms).  The whole collection is varied in style and subject matter, providing for use in public and private, in temple and at home, in joy and sorrow, in thanksgiving and in supplication.

      The church took over the Psalms as its own primary hymnbook and thus the contents have had a profound effect on the development of Christian hymnody.

Pseudepigrapha (Gk., “books with a false title”).  Those books which were excluded both from the Hebrew Bible and the longer Greek Septuagint and are thus not regarded as canonical.                                      See Apocrypha (OT), sec. 1.

Q (Quelle).  The German word for “source,” used by scholars to denote the material common to Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark’s or John’s Gospels.  It represents the whole or part of a document used by the authors of Matthew and Luke; its existence remains a hypothesis.

Revelation, Book of.  A message of hope for the churches of Asia in a time of persecution (c. A.D. 95).  The book is a splendid example of symbolic (apocalyptic) language, presenting the trials of the Christians against Satan and evil within the larger context of Christ’s victory at Calvary and the future intervention of God to inaugurate his perfect kingdom.

      The author calls himself John and tells of his exile on the isle of Patmos because of his witness for Christ.  He was both well known and possessed authority in the churches of the Roman province of Asia.  If he was not the apostle John, then he was an associate of the apostle with the same name.                          See Apocalyptic Literature, sec. 1.

Romans, Epistle of Paul to the.  Written about A.D. 57 from Corinth to a church that Paul had not founded.  He viewed the church in the city of Rome (capital of a mighty empire) as a strategic center for the expansion of the Christian mission west into Spain.  Thus he provided a comprehensive statement – a kind of theological handbook – of the gospel of God’s grace as he proclaimed and taught it.  Important in his treatment are the themes of justification by faith (being declared righteous by God for Christ’s sake alone), of the committed life of righteousness and holiness led by the Holy Spirit, and of the unity of Jewish and Gentile believers in Christ.                         See Roman Empire, sec. 3.

Ruth, Book of.  A beautiful short story set in the period of the Judges, illustrating the truth that God is the protector of the widowed and rewards faithfulness to him.  Ruth, a Moabitess, is the heroine: she went to Israel and married Boaz; their first child was the grandfather of King David.  We do not know who was the author or when it was written.

See Ruth, sec. 2.

Samuel, First and Second Books of.  The religious history of Israel from c. 1075 to 975 B.C., from the end of the period of the Judges through the reign of Saul to the final years of king David.  Samuel is not the author but the major figure of the first part of the narrative.  The contents are: (1) Samuel (1 Sm 1:1–7:14); (2) Samuel and Saul (7:15–15:35); (3) Saul and David (16:1–31:13); (4) David, the early years (2 Sm 1:1–8:18); (5) David and his court (9:1–20:26); and (6) an appendix (21:1–24:25).  Originally these two were one book and are part of what the Jews call “the former prophets.”  The identity of the author is not known.                             See Samuel, sec. 2.

Septuagint (LXX).  According to the legend contained in the Letter to Aristeas, this first Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible was completed by seventy-two scholars in seventy-two days.  According to more reliable tradition, it was done by numerous scholars over a period from 250 to 150 B.C.  It was intended for Jews who spoke Greek, especially for those in Alexandria, and it was the Bible used in the church in its earliest days.  To the contents of the Hebrew Bible were added other books of a deuterocanonical and apocryphal kind, but not all these were accepted as canonical by the church.

See Canon, sec. 1.

Sirach, Book of.  Not in the Hebrew Bible, it is held in high esteem by Jews and called Ecclesiasticus (“church book”) by Christians because it was much read in the church, both for its moral teaching and within the liturgy.  It contains practical wisdom – advice for a successful life in reverence for and obedience of God.  It concludes with a eulogy, the praise of famous men (the worthies of Israel).

Song of Songs, The.  The title means “the best of songs.”  A series of lyric poems on love between a man and woman, set in springtime.  It is a celebration of the sacredness of marriage.  Thus the book functions as a parable of the deep love of God for his people, Israel, to whom he bound himself by a holy covenant.  Jews read it at the feast of Passover.  For Christians it symbolizes the unity of love between Christ and his bride, the church.

Synoptic Gospels.  Matthew, Mark, and Luke have been called by this name since 1774 because they lend themselves to study by their texts being placed in parallel columns to show coincidence.  Many scholars believe that Matthew and Luke use not only Mark but also another source, Q.                                      See Q, sec. 1.

Talmud.  The collection of Jewish civil and canonical law (a kind of extension of the Torah) consisting of the Mishnah (originally the oral law) and the Gemara (comments of Rabbis upon the Mishnah).  There is the Palestinian Talmud (completed in the fourth century A.D.) and the longer Babylonian Talmud (completed in the fifth century A.D.).  They are helpful to Christian scholars because they show how Jews interpreted the Bible.

Targums.  Aramaic translations of parts of the Hebrew Bible, made for Aramaic-speaking Jews before and during the time of Jesus.  Because they indicate Jewish methods of interpretation they are helpful to Christian scholars.

Thessalonians, First and Second Epistles of Paul to the.  Paul left behind a small and vigorous church when he left Thessalonica in A.D. 50 (Acts 17:1ff).  He sent Timothy to encourage the new believers, who, on his return, told Paul the good news of their faithfulness and enthusiasm; he also explained their problems (questions about morality and about the time of the second coming of Jesus).  To answer these Paul wrote 1 Thessalonians in A.D. 51.

      Later in A.D. 52 he heard that they were still confused about the time of the Lord’s return and so he wrote 2 Thessalonians.                                            See Thessalonica, sec. 3.

Timothy, First and Second Epistles of Paul to.  These letters, with that to Titus, reveal that Paul was released from imprisonment in Rome, that he engaged in further activity in the eastern Mediterranean, and that he was arrested again and taken to Rome (where he was executed).

      First Timothy was written from Macedonia in A.D. 64 when Paul was a free man.  Second Timothy was written when he was a prisoner (A.D. 65–67) in Rome.  Paul gave advice to his young colleague on such topics as worship, right order and discipline, and human relations within the congregations.  The advice in 2 Timothy has a more urgent ring to it, because Paul is aware that his days are now numbered, but he still longs to see Timothy again.

      These letters, with that to Titus, are often called the “Pastoral Epistles.”

See Timothy, sec. 2.

Titus, Epistle of Paul to.  Written by Paul in A.D. 65 after release from his first imprisonment to his colleague and friend, Titus, who looked after the churches in Crete. It provides advice concerning his role as a pastor and leader and teaching concerning Christian life and conduct.                                        See Titus, sec. 2.

Tobit, Book of.  Named after its principal hero, this is a fine story, illustrating Jewish piety and morality.  It has a marvelous hymn of praise in chapter 16.  Set in the eighth century in Nineveh, it was probably written c. 190–170 B.C. in Aramaic and later translated into Greek.  It is not in the Hebrew Bible but is in the Septuagint and is accepted as Scripture by the Catholic church.  Protestants place it in the Apocrypha.

Torah (Heb., “instruction, law”).  The Hebrew name for the first five books of the OT, the Pentateuch.  The word has been used in Judaism to refer not only to the Pentateuch as the written law but also to the tradition of oral teaching which grew up as an explanation of the written word.  This oral teaching eventually was written down to create the Mishnah.

See Talmud, sec. 1.

Versions of the Bible.  The most important version of the Bible for Catholics is the Vulgate.  This was chiefly the work of St. Jerome, being commissioned by Pope Damasus I in 382.  It was the Scripture text used by church councils in the West including Vatican II.

      The important English translations for Catholics are the Douay (1609), Knox (1949), RSV Catholic Edition (1965), Jerusalem Bible (1966; second ed., 1985) and the New American Bible (1970; second ed. NT, 1987).

Wisdom, Book of (Wisdom of Solomon).  Written c. 100 B.C. in Alexandria, Egypt by an anonymous author.  Though the language is Greek, the style is reminiscent of Hebrew verse.  To emphasize his teaching, the author sometimes speaks as though he himself were the great king Solomon.  The purpose of the book is to encourage faithful Jews in a time of suffering and oppression, in part caused by fellow Jews who had abandoned their faith.  The central part of the book is a celebration by Solomon of divine wisdom; before this there is teaching of divine justice, and after it reflection upon God’s action in history and in mercy.  Over the centuries the church has made great use of the book in the Liturgy.  Protestants place it in the Apocrypha.

Wisdom Literature.  The books of the Hebrew (Prv, Job, Eccl) and Greek (Wis, Sir) canon, in which two broad types of practical wisdom are found: (1) short, pithy sayings providing guidelines and rules for personal happiness; (2) monologues or dialogues which face up to the problems and purpose of life.  This form of literature was found throughout the ancient Near East, especially in Egypt.  The distinctiveness of the biblical material is that the practical advice is given in the context of the reverence for and obedience to the Lord, the God of Israel.  When prophecy came to an end, wisdom literature gained in importance – as the Book of Sirach (175 B.C.) and the Wisdom of Solomon (100 B.C.) illustrate.

Zechariah, Book of.  This has 2 parts. (1) Prophecies delivered between 520 and 518 B.C. during the rebuilding of the Temple by the recently returned exiles (1–8); and (2) prophecies belonging to a later, unspecified time (9–14).  Many scholars doubt that Zechariah was responsible for the second half; however, here are oracles about Israel and the nations and the future Messiah (one of the latter describes his entry into Jerusalem upon the foal of an ass, 9:9).                                          See Zechariah, sec. 2.

Zephaniah, Book of.  These oracles, primarily concerning “the day of the Lord,” with judgment upon the nations as well as upon Jerusalem itself, were delivered in the reign of king Josiah (640–609 B.C.).  In his message of doom, the prophet also saw a future for the covenant people of God after their experience of the purifying fires of suffering (3:14–15).  Possibly some of the abuses denounced by Zephaniah were removed by Josiah in the reforms of 621 B.C.                                                          See Zephaniah, sec. 2.

TWO

Personal Names

Aaron.  Consecrated the first high priest of the people of Israel by his younger brother Moses.  His descendants were priests and called the “sons of Aaron” and “house of Aaron”; they ministered at the central sanctuary.                               Ex 28; Jos 21:4; Ps 115:12.

Abel (breath).  The shepherd son of Adam and Eve, who was murdered by his jealous brother Cain.                          Gn 4; Heb 11:4; Mt 23:35.

Abiathar (excellent father).  He alone escaped Saul’s massacre of the priests at Nob and joined David.  With Zadok he courageously served David during Absalom’s rebellion.  Deposed as high priest by Solomon for supporting Adonijah’s attempt to succeed David as king.                                     1 Sm 22:11-23; 2 Sm 15:24–37; 17:15; 1 Kgs 1–2.

Abner (father of light).  Saul’s cousin and commander-inchief.  He capably supported Ishbosheth’s claim to the throne after Saul’s death but lost favor and went over to David.  He was murdered by a jealous Joab at Hebron.                      1 Sm 14:50; 2 Sm 2:8; 3:6–38.

Abraham (father of multitudes).  Originally known as Abram, he became the ancestor of several peoples, especially the Hebrews.  Born at Ur of the Chaldees, he married Sarai (Sarah), and later moved to Haran, where his father Terah died.  Responding to God’s call he journeyed to Canaan, a land that God promised to give to him and his descendants.  Although both he and his wife were aged and childless, a son, Isaac, was miraculously born to them.  Abraham’s faith was severely tested when God ordered him to sacrifice his son at Moriah, but his willingness to obey resulted in Isaac’s deliverance and the sacrifice of a ram as a substitute.  Paul uses Abraham’s faith to illustrate salvation by grace.

Gn 17:5; 11:27–32; 12; 15; 22; Rom 4.

Absalom (father of peace).  The handsome son of David and Maacah.  He killed his half-brother Amnon for raping his sister Tamar, and he was banished by David.  On his return he led a rebellion against his father, but he came to an ignominious end.

2 Sm 3:3; 13–15; 18.

Achan.  By stealing booty from Jericho, he brought about Israel’s defeat at Ai.  Stoned and cremated in a valley consequently named Achor (trouble).                                  Jos 7.

Adam (man, human being).  The first man, formed by God of dust from the ground as the climax of creation.  His disobedience led to expulsion from the garden of Eden.  Died at age 930.  Paul draws contrasts between Christ and Adam.  Adam’s union with Eve illustrates the permanence of marriage.

Gn 1:26; 2:7; 3; 5:5; Mt 19:4–6; Lk 3:38; 1 Cor 15:22, 45.

Agabus.  A Christian prophet of Jerusalem, whose prediction of widespread famine was fulfilled in the reign of Claudius.  At Caesarea he foretold Paul’s imprisonment.

Acts 11:28; 21:10.

Agrippa.  See Herod, sec. 2.

Ahab (father’s brother).  Seventh king of Israel (874–852 B.C.).  Married the pagan Jezebel, princess of Sidon, for whom he built a temple dedicated to Baal, a deity of Tyre.  As a result Ahab was denounced by the prophet Elijah.  Ahab defeated the Syrians but was condemned for sparing their king, Ben-hadad.  Incited by Jezebel, Ahab seized Naboth’s vineyard and earned Elijah’s sentence of judgment to come.  Misled by false prophets, Ahab met his death fighting against the Syrians.                                                1 Kgs 16:32; 17–22.

Ahasuerus.  The Persian king, Xerxes I (485–465 B.C.).  He divorced Vashti and married Esther; he rewarded Mordecai for his loyalty and hanged Haman for plotting against the Jews.                                             Est; Ezr 4:6.

Ahijah (Yahweh is my brother).  A prophet from Shiloh who tore a new robe into twelve pieces, ten of which he gave to Jeroboam, thereby symbolizing the division of Solomon’s kingdom.  When Jeroboam led Israel into idolatry, Ahijah foretold the extinction of his family and the exile of Israel.                                             1 Kgs 11:29–40; 14:6–16.

Amos (burdened).  Shepherd and sycamore-fig farmer, and a native of Tekoa, ten miles from Jerusalem, called by God to prophesy in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II of Israel about 760 B.C.         Amos 1:1; 7:4.

See also Amos, Book of, sec. 1.

Ananias.  Three men bear this name. (1) A Jerusalem Christian who collapsed and died when his deceit over a contribution to the common fund was exposed by Peter (Acts 5:1–6); (2) a Damascus Christian who ministered to Saul of Tarsus and passed on Christ’s commission to him (Acts 9:10); (3) the high priest whose malpractice when examining Paul at a meeting of the Sanhedrin earned the apostle’s rebuke of “whitewashed wall” (Acts 23:2; 24:1).

Andrew (manly).  Apostle.  From Bethsaida in Galilee he went to live at Capernaum in a fishing partnership with his brother Simon Peter.  He was a disciple of John the Baptist before following Jesus.  Andrew introduced to Jesus not only Peter, but also the boy with the loaves and fishes and some Greeks.  He asked Jesus about the coming judgment and was present at the Ascension.

Mt 4:18; 10:2; Mk 1:29; Jn 1:35–44; 6:8; 12:22; Acts 1:13.

Anna (Greek form of Hannah, “grace”).  An aged widow, of the tribe of Asher, who devoted herself to worship in the Temple.  She welcomed the infant Jesus as the long-awaited Messiah.  One of the seven prophetesses who prophesied to Israel.  In Jewish tradition the others were Sarah, Miriam, Deborah, Huldah, Abigail, and Esther.            Lk 2:36.

Antiochus (withstander).  The name of thirteen kings of the Seleucid dynasty, who ruled Asia Minor and Syria after the division of the empire of Alexander the Great.  It appears frequently in First and Second Maccabees, where Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164 B.C.), Antiochus V Eupator (164–162 B.C.), Antiochus VI Dionysus (145–142 B.C.), and Antiochus VII Sidetes (139–129 B.C.) are specifically mentioned.

1 Mc 1:20ff; 6:17 and 7:1–4; 11:39, 57ff; 15:1ff.

Apollos.  An eloquent Alexandrian Jew, deeply versed in the OT and with some knowledge of John’s baptism and of Jesus, but needing further instruction by Priscilla and Aquila.  From Ephesus he went to Corinth, powerfully preaching Jesus to the Jews.  One clique at Corinth even took Apollos’ name.                  Acts 18:24-28; 1 Cor 1:12; 3:4–6; 16:12; Ti 3:13.

Aquila and Prisca (Priscilla).  A Jewish-Christian leatherworker from Patmos and his wife.  They were expelled from Rome by the edict of Claudius against Jews in A.D. 49.

Acts 18:1–3, 18–28; 1 Cor 16:19; Rom 16:3.

Augustus Caesar.  The first Roman emperor, ruling from 31 B.C. to A.D. 14.  His decree sent Joseph and Mary to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born.                                    Lk 2:1.

See also Roman Empire, sec. 3.

Balaam.  A prophet bribed by Balak, king of Moab, to curse the Israelites; he instead pronounced blessings.                                                Nm 22–24.

Barabbas (son of father).  A notorious Jewish revolutionary arrested by the Romans for murder.  The priests prevailed upon Pilate to release him at the Passover instead of Jesus.

Mt 27:16–17; Mk 15:7; Lk 23:18; Jn 18:40.

Barak (lightning).  A Naphtalite summoned by the prophetess Deborah to rally the Israelites against the Canaanite general Sisera.                              Jgs 4–5; Heb 11:32.

Barnabas (encourager).  Cognomen of one of the first Christian missionaries, a member of a Jewish-Cypriot priestly family and a cousin of John Mark.  He befriended Saul of Tarsus, represented the Jerusalem church at Antioch (where Gentiles were being converted), and recognized that the mission to the Gentiles was Saul’s work.  With Saul (Paul) he carried famine relief to Jerusalem, where the mission to Gentiles was recognized.  He temporarily gave way to judaizing pressure in Antioch before joining Paul in the mission to the Gentiles.                        Acts 4:36; 9:27; 11:25–26; 13–14; 15; Col 4:10; Gal 2:1, 9, 13.

Bartholomew (son of Ptolemy).  One of the twelve apostles, paired with Philip.

Mt 10:3; Mk 3:18; Lk 6:14; Acts 1:13.

Baruch (blessed).  Faithful servant of the prophet Jeremiah. He wrote down his master’s prophecies and went into exile in Egypt with him. Jeremiah uttered a special oracle concerning him. The canonical Book of Baruch is not by him, but his name was used for several apocryphal books, notably The Apocalypse of Baruch.

Jer 36:4, 10, 32; 32:11ff; 45:1ff.                            See Baruch, Book of, sec 1.

Bathsheba.  Daughter of Eliam and wife of Uriah the Hittite.  David plotted Uriah’s death at the siege of Rabbah in order to marry her; he earned the rebuke of Nathan the prophet.  In David’s old age she cooperated with Nathan to secure the succession of Solomon and thus her own position as queen mother.                                  2 Sm 11–12; 1 Kgs 1.

Benjamin (son of the right hand).  Jacob’s youngest son, whose mother Rachel died at his birth.  After Joseph was lost he became his father’s favorite son; this fact eventually brought about the reconciliation of Joseph and the other brothers.

      The tribe descended from him and bearing his name was famous for its fighting skill and left-handed slingers.  The apostle Paul was a Benjaminite.

Gn 35:18, 24; 42:4; 44; 46:21; 1 Chr 8; Rom 11:1.

Boaz (by him he is mighty).  Prosperous Bethlehem farmer who took the widow Ruth as his wife under levirate marriage and so became the great-grandfather of David.

Ruth 2–4; Mt 1:5.

Caiaphas.  High priest in Jerusalem (A.D. 18–36), son-in-law of Annas, his predecessor.  In office at the time of Jesus’ trial and during the early persecution of Christians.

Jn 18:13; 11:49; Acts 4:6.

Cain.  Eldest son of Adam and Eve.  An agriculturist, he murdered his shepherd brother Abel out of jealousy and was exiled to the land of Nod, where he lived as a nomad.

Gn 4; 1 Jn 3:12; Heb 11:4.

Caleb.  The name of several men in the OT, in particular of Caleb ben Jephunneh.  He was an outstanding leader of Judah in the period of the sojourn in the wilderness and entry into Canaan.  He was both one of the twelve scouts sent to spy out the land and one of the twelve men appointed to apportion the land of Canaan to the tribes.

Nm 13:6; 14:6, 24, 30, 38; 34:19; Jos 14:6, 13, 14; 15:13–17.

Claudius.  Roman emperor A.D. 41–54.  A famine foretold by Agabus occurred in his reign.  He banished the Jews from Rome in A.D. 49.                                    Acts 11:28; 18:2.

See also Roman Empire, sec. 3.

Cornelius.  A Roman centurion of the cohort stationed at Caesarea; a “God-fearer” who became the first Gentile convert to Christ.                             Acts 10.

Cyrus.  Persian king (Cyrus II, 559-530 B.C.); also conquered Babylon (539).  He allowed the exiled Jews to return to Judea and to restore their Temple.

2 Chr 36:22; Is 44:28; 45:1; Ezr 1:1; 6:3; Dn 6:28; 10:1.

See also Persia, sec. 3.

Dan.  Son of Jacob and Rachel’s handmaid Bilhah and ancestor of the tribe of Dan, which settled west of the Dead Sea but later migrated northwards.

Gn 30:6; 49:16–18; Jos 19:40–48.

Daniel.  Four men bear this name. (1) The second son of David, by Abigail (1 Chr 3:1); (2) exiled priestly descendant of Ithamar who returned from exile with Ezra (Ezr 8:2; Neh 10:6); (3) a man outstanding for his godly wisdom, classed with Noah and Job (Ez 14:14, 20; 28:3); (4) the fourth of the major prophets, a young Jew of noble descent deported to Babylon in 597 B.C., renamed Belteshazzar, and trained for Nebuchadnezzar’s service.  Interpreter of visions and a leading official in Babylon. (Dn; Mt 24:15).

Darius.  Three men in the Bible bear this name.  (1) Darius the Mede son of Ahasuerus.  Unknown to history, he is recorded in Scripture as the man who displaced Belshazzar as king of the Chaldeans and made Daniel one of his district governors. (Dn 5:30–6:2; 9:1).  (2) Darius I (521–486 B.C.), king of Persia and Babylon authorized the exiled Jews to return to Jerusalem and to rebuild the Temple, led by Jeshua and Zerubbabel (Ezr 4–6; Hg 1:1; Zec 1:1).  (3) Darius II (423–408 B.C.), called Darius the Persian (Neh 12:22).

David.  Youngest of Jesse’s eight sons and second king of Israel, he subjugated Israel’s enemies, prepared for the building of the Temple, and organized national worship.  Skilled in music and in composing elegies and psalms.  Ancestor of Jesus and prophet of the coming Messiah and his resurrection.  “Son of David” was a title of the Messiah.

1 Sm 16–1 Kgs 2; 1 Chr 2–29; Mt 1:17; 12:3; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 29.

Deborah (bee).  Two women bear this name. (1) Rebekah’s nurse who died at Bethel (Gn 35:8).  (2) a judge-prophetess (about 1125 B.C.) who ordered Barak to lead the Israelites against Sisera.  The victory song of Deborah is one of the most ancient passages in the OT (Jgs 4–5).

Delilah.  A beautiful Hebrew girl from the valley of Sorek.  She became the mistress of Samson and then betrayed him into the hands of the Philistines.  She had his hair cut off while he slept and thus he lost his strength.                                 Jdg 16:4–22.

Dorcas (gazelle).  Greek translation of the Aramaic name Tabitha.  A Christian woman, prominent in the church at Joppa, who was restored to life by Peter’s prayer.

Acts 9:36–41.

Eleazar (God has helped).  Most OT occurrences of this common name are to the third son of Aaron, who succeeded his father as high priest.  He was buried at Gibeah in Ephraim.  From Eleazar were descended one of the two main divisions of the full priesthood and almost all the high priests down to Maccabean times.         Nm 20:25–28; Jos 24:33.

Eli.  High priest and predecessor of Samuel as judge in Israel.  He was kind to Hannah and Samuel, but failed to discipline his unfaithful sons.  The shock of their death in battle killed him.                                     1 Sam 1–4.

Elijah (Yahweh is God).  Outstanding ninth-century prophet from Tishbe in Gilead who consistently opposed Ahab and Ahaziah and the worship of Baal in their reigns.  His dramatic translation into heaven was observed by his successor Elisha.

1 Kgs 17–21; 2 Kgs 1–2; Mal 4:5–6; Mt 17:3, 10–12.

Elisha (God is salvation).  Ninth-century prophet in Israel and successor to Elijah.  A native of Abel-meholah in the Jordan valley, he ministered for fifty years through the reigns of Ahab, Ahaziah, Jehoram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash.

1 Kgs 19:16–21; 2 Kgs 2–9; 13; Lk 4:27.

Elizabeth.  Wife of the priest Zechariah and mother of John the Baptist; a relative of Mary, the mother of Jesus.                                      Lk 1:5-57.

Ephraim (fruitful).  Second son of Joseph and Asenath, he was chosen before his brother Manasseh by his grandfather Jacob.                                         Gn 41:51–52; 48.

Esau (hairy).  Isaac’s favorite of his twin sons.  Although the elder, his inferiority to his brother Jacob was foretold at birth and unwittingly confirmed by Isaac’s dying blessing.  Ancestor of the Edomites, chronic antagonists of the Israelites.

Gn 25:23–34; 27:22–29; 36:9; Nm 20:18; 1 Kgs 11:14.

Esther.  Queen of Ahasuerus (Xerxes, 486–465 B.C.); her Jewish name was Hadassah.

Est.  See Esther, Book of, sec. 1.

Eve (life).  The first woman, wife of Adam and mother of Cain, Abel, and Seth.

Gn 3:20; 4:1; 1 Tm 2:13; 2 Cor 11:3.

Ezekiel (God strengthens).  Son of Buzi, departed to Babylon with other exiled Jews in 597 B.C.  His wife had died during the seige of Jerusalem.  Five years after settling at Tel-abib by the river Chebar, God called him to be a prophet.

Ez 1:2–3; 24:2, 15–18.                                See Ezekiel, Book of, sec. 1.

Ezra (help).  A priestly Jewish exile sent by Artaxerxes I to Jerusalem in 458 B.C. to establish the uniform observance of Jewish law in the land.  Many fellow exiles went with him, bringing valuable treasure for the reestablishment of the Temple.  After dealing with the problem of mixed marriages he apparently returned to the Persian king.  In 444 B.C. he was back in Jerusalem publicly reading the Law.  He is the founding figure of postexilic Judaism.                           Ezr 9–10; Neh 8.                   See Ezra, Book of, sec. 1.

Felix (happy).  Procurator of Judea (A.D. 52–59).  In A.D. 55 he put down a riot instigated by an Egyptian messianic pretender.  Hoping for a bribe he kept Paul in prison for two years, even though he knew that he was innocent.  Recalled by the emperor Nero he left Paul in jail in order to please the Jews.                                      Acts 23:24–26; 24.

Festus, Porcius.  Successor to Felix as procurator of Judea and a friend of Herod Agrippa II.  When Paul realized that his rightful release would again be obstructed he appealed over the head of the procurator to the emperor in Rome.                 Acts 24:27; 25:9–13.

Gabriel (God’s mighty one).  Archangel commissioned to deliver historic messages from God to mankind.  He announced the births of John the Baptist and Jesus.

Dan 8:16; 9:21; Lk 1:19, 26.

Gamaliel (God’s reward).  Two men bear this name.  (1) Son of Pedahzur, a leader of the tribe of Manasseh who assisted in Moses’ census in the wilderness (Nm 1:10; 2:20; 7:54, 59); (2) a liberal Pharisee and a leading member of the Sanhedrin who advised this council not to take precipitate action against the apostles (Acts 5:34; 22:3).

Gideon (hewer, warrior).  A judge or charismatic warrior-leader of the Israelites, especially in their expulsion of the invading Midianites.  He received special signs from God – a sacrifice set alight and a fleece wet with dew.  He gave the land peace for forty years.

Jgs 6–8; Heb 11:32.

Gog.  A future king of Magog, Meshech, and Tubal, prophesied by Ezekiel, who will lead his armies against Israel.                                                  Ez 38–39; Rev 20:8.

Goliath.  A hero of the Philistines who stood over nine feet in height.  He was killed by David in single combat.                                                           1 Sm 17.

Habakkuk.  One of the twelve minor prophets who addressed Judah at the end of the seventh century B.C.  He faced the problem of how the holy and righteous God could use the heathen Chaldeans to punish his elect people, Israel.

See Habakkuk, Book of, sec. 1.

Hagar.  Egyptian handmaid to Sarah and servant in the household of Abraham.  Because Sarah was childless, Hagar was given to Abraham who had a son by her.  When Hagar was pregnant with Ishmael she fled; but, after an encounter with God, she returned to Abraham’s household.  Later, however, she was expelled along with her son.  The apostle Paul used her story as an allegory to teach freedom from the Law of Moses.

Gn 16:1–16; 21:9–17; Gal 4:24–25.

Haggai.  One of the twelve minor prophets who addressed the returned exiles in Jerusalem about 520 B.C.  Possibly he himself had been in exile with them.

See Haggai, Book of, sec. 1.

Ham.  Son of Noah, brother of Japheth and Shem, and father of Canaan.  He survived the Flood to become the ancestor of various peoples.

Gn 5:32; 6:10; 9:18–27; 10:6–20.

Haman.  The villain of the Book of Esther.  As grand vizier appointed by king Xerxes, he plotted to massacre the Jews when Mordecai refused to bow down before him.  Through the intervention of Queen Esther, he was eventually hanged at the very gallows that had been prepared by him for Mordecai.                                          See Esther, Book of, sec. 1.

Hannah.  The favored of the two wives of Elkanah.  In answer to her prayer and vow, she conceived and gave birth to Samuel, whom she dedicated to the Lord.  Afterwards she had other children.  A song or psalm is attributed to her, upon which Mary’s Magnificat is based.                                                           1 Sm 1 and 2

Herod.  Three men bear this name.  (1) Herod the Great, who was appointed procurator of Judea by Julius Caesar in 47 B.C.; later he was given the title, “King of the Jews” and reigned till 4 B.C. (Mt 2; Lk 1:5).  (2) Herod the Ethnarch (Archelaus), his son.  He ruled Judea from 4 B.C. to A.D. 6. (Mt 2:22).  (3) Herod the king (Herod Agrippa I), grandson of Herod the Great.  He ruled Galilee, Judea and Samaria from A.D. 34–44 (Acts 12).  His son (Herod) Agrippa II ruled from A.D. 50 (Acts 25:13–26:32).

Hezekiah (Yahweh is strength).  King of Judah, 716–687 B.C.  He was a reformer of religion and sought to remove idolatry from the land.  He also sought to resist the attempts of Assyria to subjugate Judah and Jerusalem; in his resistance he experienced God’s supernatural intervention.                                       2 Kgs 18–20; 2 Chr 29–32; Is 36–39.

Hiram (my brother is the exalted god).  Phoenician king of Tyre (979–945 B.C.).  He sent materials and craftsmen both to David for the building of his palace and to Solomon for the building of the Temple in Jerusalem.  From his reign is to be dated the expansion of the Phoenician navy, leading to the creation of cities and markets in the Mediterranean and Africa.                                                          1 Kgs 5:11–26; 7:13–45; 9:11–27.

Hosea (salvation).  A prophet and citizen of the northern kingdom of Israel, he prophesied in the reign of Jeroboam II.  He used his unhappy experience of marriage in a creative manner to illustrate God’s love for unfaithful Israel.                    See Hosea, Book of, sec. 1.

Isaac (he laughs).  Son of Abraham and Sarah, born when his parents were old, according to God’s promise.  As a boy he was on the verge of being offered by his father as a sacrifice when God intervened to save him.  Later he married Rebekah and by her had twin sons, Esau and Jacob.  He was retiring and contemplative by nature.

Gn 21–22; 24–28; 35:27–29; Gal 4:28; Heb 11:9, 20.

Isaiah (Yahweh has saved).  A major prophet who lived in Jerusalem during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah from 742 to at least 701 B.C.  His call to prophesy came when he was in the Temple and involved a vision of God’s glory.  He was married to a prophetess and had two sons, to whom he gave names indicating what God was going to do: Shearjashub (Is 7:3) and Mahershalalhashbaz (Is 8:3).

See Isaiah, Book of, sec. 1.

Ishmael (God hears).  The son of Abraham by Hagar, the Egyptian slave.  He was circumcised when thirteen years old; and, three years later, after mocking his baby half-brother, Isaac, he was banished with his mother.  They nearly perished from thirst but were miraculously led to a well.  Ishmael became an archer, married an Egyptian, and fathered twelve princes.  Esau married one of his daughters.

Gn 16:11–16; 17:18–26; 21:11; 25:9–16; 28:9; 36:3.

Israel.  See Jacob, sec. 2.

Israel, Kings of.

The Northern Kingdom of Israel

Destroyed by Assyrians 723 B.C.

Jacob (God guards).  Son of Isaac and Rebekah, and the (younger) twin brother of Esau.  He gained his father’s special blessing by pretending to be Esau and then fled to Haran from his brother’s wrath.  On the way he had a vision of a ladder connecting heaven and earth with angels descending and ascending.  In Haran he married two wives, Leah and Rachel, and had eleven sons.  Returning to his own land with his family and possessions, he had a strange encounter with an unknown man or angel and through this experience God gave him the new name of Israel.  His sons became the ancestors of the twelve tribes.

Gn 25:21–34; 27–35; 37:1; 42–49.

Jacob, Sons of.

The Sons of Jacob

Leah and Rachel were wives; Bilhah and Zilpah were concubines.

James.  Three men bear this name.  (1) James son of Zebedee, brother of John, disciple and apostle, a “son of thunder.”  He was a martyr under Herod Agrippa I (Mt 4:21–22; 17:1; Mk 5:37; 10:35–41; Acts 12:2).  (2) James son of Alphaeus, disciple and apostle, known as “James the younger” (Mt 10:3; Mk 15:40; Acts 1:13).  (3) James “brother of the Lord,” a relative of Jesus, who became leader of the church in Jerusalem and to whom is ascribed the Letter of James. (Mt 13:55; Acts 12:17; 1 Cor 15:7).

Japheth.  Son of Noah and brother of Shem and Ham.  He survived the Flood to become the ancestor of various peoples.                                             Gn 5:32; 9:18-23; 10:1–5; 1 Chr 1:4.

Jephthah (God opens the womb).  A “judge” or charismatic leader of the Israelites, especially against the Ammonites.  His rule was marred by the sacrifice of his daughter as a burnt offering in order to keep a vow he made to God.                         Jgs 11:1–12:7.

Jeremiah (Yahweh establishes).  A major prophet in Judah from about 626 to 587 B.C.  He prophesied under the last five kings of Judah.  When Jerusalem fell to Nebuchadnezzar, he was not deported to Babylon; however, he was later forced by his countrymen to go down into Egypt.                        2 Chr 35:25; 36:12, 21-22.       See Jeremiah, Book of, sec. 1.

Jeroboam (may the people increase).  First king of the southern kingdom of Israel (931–910 B.C.).  In the reign of Solomon he led a revolt of the northern tribes against the king’s harsh treatment of them.  This led to his exile in Egypt.  After the death of Solomon, he was elected by popular choice as king over the ten tribes and thus the division of Israel and Judah as two separate kingdoms began.  However, in opposing king Rehoboam of Jerusalem and setting up the northern kingdom, he incurred the divine wrath by building shrines at Dan and Bethel and creating a non-levitical priesthood.                       1 Kgs 12–14:

Jeroboam II.  Fourth king (782–753 B.C.) of Jehu’s dynasty and one of the northern kingdom’s most illustrious rulers.  His reign was one of economic prosperity but not of sound religion.  Amos delivered severe prophecies against Israel during his reign.

Amos 5–7; 1 Kgs 14:23ff.

Jesus (form of Joshua, “Savior”).  Conceived by the Holy Spirit in the womb of the virgin Mary, Jesus was born in Bethlehem, thereby fulfilling ancient prophecy.  He was taken by Mary and Joseph into Egypt for several years and then raised by them in Nazareth in Galilee.  His education and upbringing were those of a pious Jew.  Baptized by John the Baptist, he began his ministry in Galilee and Judea.  He preached, taught, healed the sick, and gathered around him a company of disciples and apostles in service of the kingdom of God.  Eventually his opponents brought him to trial and handed him over to the Roman authorities for death by crucifixion.  He rose from death on the third day following his burial and appeared to his disciples regularly for the next forty days.  He is now in heaven in his resurrected body as the exalted king, priest, and prophet, and he will come again to judge the living and the dead.

Jezebel.  Daughter of Ethbaal, king of Sidon, who became the wife of Ahab, king of Israel.  She was an ardent devotee of Baal; at her suggestion Ahab introduced the worship of Baal and Asherah into Israel.  She caused the prophets of Yahweh to be slain and attempted to kill Elijah.  She suffered a violent death predicted by Elijah.

1 Kgs 16:31; 18:4, 13, 19; 19:1–2; 21; 2 Kgs 9:30–37.              See Baal, sec. 4.

Job.  An outstandingly righteous man who lived in the land of Uz, east of Palestine.  He lost wealth, children and health in a series of disasters, but he refused to curse God.  He gained insight into the power and wisdom of God, and in the end God healed him and restored much of what he had lost.

Ez 14:14, 20; Jas 5:11.                                 See Job, Book of, sec. 1.

Joel (Yahweh is God).  There are thirteen men of this name, including the author of the Book of Joel, who was a son of Pethuel.

1 Sam 8:2; 1 Chr 4:35; 5:4, 8, 12; 6:34, 36, 38; 7:3; 11:38; 15:7, 11, 17; 27:20; Ezr 10:43; Neh 11:9; Joel 1:1.                                                     See Joel, Book of, sec. 1.

John (Yahweh has been gracious).  Ten men of this name. (1) The father of Mattathias (1 Mc 2:1).  (2) The eldest son of Mattathias (1 Mc 2:2; 9:36, 38, 42).  (3) The son of Accos and father of Eupolemus (1 Mc 8:17; 2 Mc 4:11).  (4) An envoy of the Jews sent to Lysias (2 Mc 11:17).  (5) The son of Simon Maccabeus, known as John Hyrcanus (1 Mc 13:53; 16:1, 23).  (6) The father of Simon Peter (Jn 1:42; 21:15-17; Mt 16:17).  (7) John the Baptist, son of Zachariah and Elizabeth.  Around 27 A.D. he appeared as a prophetic preacher in the wilderness near the Jordan.  He baptized Jews, including Jesus.  After imprisonment, he was beheaded (Mt 3:1–11; 14:1–12; Mk 1:4–6; Lk 1:5–25, 57–80; 7:18–33).  (8) John the apostle, son of Zebedee and brother of James.   He is either the author or the inspiration behind the Gospel,

      Epistles, and Revelation that bear his name, known as the Johannine literature (Mt 4:21–22;10:2;17:1; Mk 3:17; 5:37; 10:35–41; 14:33; Lk 9:49; Jn 19:26–27; Acts 3–4; Gal 2:9; Rev 1).  (9) John Mark, identified with Mark the evangelist (Acts 12:12, 25).  (10) A Jewish leader who called the apostles Peter and John to account (Acts 4:6).

Jonah (dove).  A prophet in the reign of Jeroboam II (eighth century B.C.).  He is also the hero of the book which is the fifth of the Minor Prophets.               2 Kgs 14:25; Jon 1:1.

See Jonah, Book of, sec. 1.

Jonathan (Yahweh has given).  Eldest son of king Saul and bosom friend of David.  A great warrior, he was killed in battle against the Philistines.  David wrote a lament for him.  1 Sm 13–14; 18–20; 23:16–18; 31:2; 2 Sm 1.

Joseph (May Yahweh add).  Fourteen men bear this name.  (1) The eleventh of Jacob’s twelve sons and the elder son of Rachel.  He was sold as a slave into Egypt by his brothers but there he became an interpreter of dreams and superintendent of the royal granaries.  He invited his family to come and live in Egypt (Gn 30:24; 37–50).  (2) The father of the spy of the tribe of Issachar (Nm 13:7).  (3) A son of Asaph and head of a group of musicians in David’s reign (1 Chr 25:2, 9).  (4) An ancestor of Jesus Christ who lived before the Exile (Lk 3:30).  (5) A son of Binnui (Zaccai, in JB) who took a foreign wife (Ezr 10:42).  (6) A priest of the family of Shebaniah (Neh 12:14).  (7) Son of Mattathias and ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk 3:24–25).  (8) Son of Zechariah, who disobeyed Judas Maccabeus (1 Mc 5:18, 55-62).  (9) The husband of Mary, mother of Jesus (Mt 1–2; Lk 1:27; 2:1–16).  (10) A relative of Jesus (Mt 13:55).  (11) Brother of James the younger (Mt 27:56; Mk 15:40).  (12) A Jew of Arimathea, a member of the Sanhedrin, who buried the body of Jesus (Mt 27:57–60; Mk 15:43; Lk 23:50–53; Jn 19:38).  (13) A Christian called Barsabbas and Justus who was a disciple of Jesus from the beginning (Acts 1:23).  (14) The personal name of Barnabas (Acts 4:36).

Joshua (Yahweh is salvation).  Two men bear this name.  (1) The successor of Moses and hero of the book of Joshua.  He served under Moses in the period in the wilderness and then led the Israelites into Canaan and divided the land among the tribes (Ex 17:9–13; Nm 13–14; Jos).  (2) The high priest in Jerusalem after the Exile and under the leadership of Zerubbabel.  The prophets Haggai and Zechariah refer to him (Ezr 2:2, 36; 3:8–9; 5:2; Neh 7:7, 39; 12:2).

Josiah (May Yahweh give).  King of Judah (640–609 B.C.) from the age of eight.  He repaired the Temple and instituted religious reforms.  He was killed in battle against the Egyptians.                                           2 Kgs 21:24–23:30; 2 Chr 33:25–35:27; Jer 22:11–16.

Judah (Let God be praised).  Eight men bear this name.  It is primarily the name of the fourth son of Jacob and Leah and the tribe named for him.

Gn 29:35; 37:26–27; 38; 49:9–10; Num 26:19–21; 1 Chr 2:3–6; Ez 3:9; 10:23; Neh 11:9; 12:8, 34, 36.

The Southern Kingdom of Judah

Destroyed by Babylonians 587 B.C.

Judas (Gk. form of “Judah”).  There are nine men who bear this name.  (1) Judas Maccabeus, third of the five sons of Mattathias and successful military leader of the faithful Jews, 166–160 B.C. (1 Mc 2–9).  (2) Son of Chalphi, who stood by Jonathan Maccabeus at Hazor (1 Mc 11:70).  (3) Son of Simon Maccabeus and a commander of the Jewish army 137–134 B.C. (1 Mc 16).  (4) Judas of Galilee, who led an insurrection against Rome in A.D. 6 (Acts 5:37).  (5) Judas Iscariot, the disciple who betrayed Jesus and then committed suicide (Mt 10:4; 26:14–15; 27:3–6; Jn 12:4–6; 13:21–30; Acts 1:16–19).  (6) Judas, the apostle, also called Thaddeus (Mk 3:18; Lk 6:16; Jn 14:22).  (7) A relative of Jesus (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3).  (8) A Christian of Damascus with whom Paul lodged after his conversion (Acts 9:11).  (9) Judas Barsabbas, a leader of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 15:22, 27, 32).

Jude (Judas).  Author of the Letter of Jude and “brother of James.”  The same as Judas (6) or (7) above.                                                    See Jude, Epistle of, sec. 1.

Judith (Jewess).  The heroine of the Book of Judith.  She promised her people, who were invaded by the Assyrians, that they would be liberated.  After fasting and prayer she put on her best garments, went to the Assyrian camp and killed the commander-in-chief, Holofernes, as he lay drunk.  Hearing of his death, the Assyrians panicked and were defeated by the Jews.                                   Jdt 8–16.                    See Judith, Book of, sec. 1.

Korah.  Four men bear this name.  (1) A son of Esau (Gn 36:5, 14, 18); (2) a son of Hebron (1 Chr 2:43); (3) a grandson of Kohath and ancestor of a group of musicians (1 Chr 6:22, 37; Ps 44–49); (4) a Levite who rebelled against Moses and Aaron and was punished by God (Nm 16).

Laban (white).  Descendant of Abraham’s brother, Nahor; son of Bethuel; brother of Rebekah and uncle and father-in-law of Jacob.  He lived in Haran.  He showed self-interest and duplicity in his dealings with Jacob, taking advantage of his love for Rachel, his daughter.                                                       Gn 22:20-23; 24:47ff; 27:43; 28:2–5; 29–31.

Lazarus.  Two men bear this name.  (1) The beggar in the parable of Lk 16:19–31; (2) brother of Martha and Mary of Bethany, whom Jesus raised from the dead (Jn 11:1–12:11).

Leah.  Elder daughter of Laban of Haran.  Jacob was forced to marry her as he worked for Laban and waited to marry her younger sister, Rachel.  She was the mother of Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah, and thus regarded as a mother of the house of Israel.                                                        Gn 29–31; 49:31; Ru 4:11.

Levi.  Four men bear this name.  (1) Third son of Jacob and Leah, who died in Egypt.  The Levites are his descendants (Gn 29:34; 34:25–31; 49:5–7; Ex 6:16).  (2), (3) Two ancestors of Jesus (Lk 3:24, 29–30).  (4) Another name for Matthew, disciple and apostle (Mk 2:14–17; Lk 5:27–32).

Lot.  Son of Abraham’s youngest brother, Haran.  He accompanied Abram and Sarai from Ur to Haran, into Canaan, to Egypt and back to Canaan.  He selfishly and foolishly chose to live in Sodom, from where he had to be twice rescued.  He fathered children by his two daughters and they became the ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites.

Gn 11:27, 31; 12:4–5; 13:1–4; 14:12, 16; 19:1–38; Dt 2:9, 19.

Luke.  Friend and companion of Paul, a physician, and the author of a Gospel and Acts.  Speaks of “we” in the latter because he traveled with Paul.

Col 4:14; 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 24; Acts 16:10–17; 20:5–21:18; 27:1–28:16.

Maccabee (hammer).  Nickname of Judas, son of Mattathias, also extended to cover his brothers, who succeeded him in the leadership of the Jews.

See Maccabees, Books of, sec. 1.

Malachi (my messenger).  A prophet and author of the last book of the OT. He ministered in the mid-fifth century B.C.                                       See Malachi, Book of, sec. 1.

Manasseh.  Name of two men.  (1) Eldest son of Joseph, born in Egypt of an Egyptian mother, Asenath.  He was adopted, with his brother Ephraim, by Jacob, as his son.  Thus Manasseh became one of the tribes of Israel (Gn 41:51; 46:20; 48:1–20; Nm 1:34–35; 26:29–34; 1 Ch 7:14–19).  (2) Son and successor of Hezekiah as king of Judah (686–642 B.C.).  At least the first part of his reign was wicked and apostate but there is some evidence that after a deportation to Babylon (where he repented) he became a better ruler.

2 Kgs 21:1–17; 2 Ch 33:10–23

Mark (John).  Son of Mary of Jerusalem, cousin of Barnabas, evangelist and missionary, colleague of Barnabas and Paul, to whom is traditionally ascribed the Gospel of Mark.

Mk 14:51; Acts 12:12, 25;13:13; 15:36–41; Col 4:10; 2 Tm 4:11; Phlm 24; 1 Pt 5:13.

Martha.  Sister of Mary and Lazarus of Bethany and disciple of Jesus.

Lk 10:38–42; Jn 11:1–12:11.

Mary.  (Gk form of Heb “Miriam”).  Six women bear this name in the NT.  (1) Mary, mother of Jesus.  As a virgin she miraculously conceived before marrying Joseph.  She gave birth to Jesus, whom she knew was the Messiah of Israel.  From Bethlehem, where she gave birth, the family had to flee to Egypt, but later they settled in Nazareth in Galilee.  Mary is mentioned several times in the Gospels, including her attendance at the crucifixion (Mt 1:18–25; 2:11; 13:55; Lk 1–2; Jn 2:1–11; 19:25–27; Acts 1:14).  (2) Mary Magdalene.  Jesus cast seven devils out of her; she became his devoted and supportive disciple.  She was present at the crucifixion, visited his tomb and witnessed the resurrection (Mk 16:9; Lk 8:2; 24:10; Jn 20:1–18).  (3) Mary of Bethany.  Sister of Martha and brother Lazarus, who was eager to learn from Jesus (Lk 10:38–42; Jn 11:1–12:11).  (4) Mary, the wife of Clopas (Jn 19:25).  (5) Mary, mother of John Mark.  In her home the church of Jerusalem met in its early days (Acts 12:12).  (6) Mary of Rome, a member of the church in the capital city (Rom 16:6).

Matthew (gift of Yahweh).  Also called Levi, he was a tax collector for the Roman authorities before becoming a disciple and apostle of Jesus.  He gave his name to the first Gospel in the NT.                                                     Mt 9:9–13; 10:3; Lk 5:27–32.

Matthias.  Chosen to be an apostle to fill the place vacated by Judas Iscariot.

Acts 1:21–26.

Melchizedek (king of righteousness).  A king and priest of God Most High, who met and blessed Abraham after a battle.  The Letter to the Hebrews states that Jesus is a king and priest “of the order of Melchizedek.”                        Gn 14:18–20; Ps 110:4; Heb 5:6–10.

Micah (who is like Yahweh?).  The name of seven men, the best-known being the prophet who ministered in the eighth century B.C. in the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah.  He was a contemporary of Hosea and Isaiah.

1 Chr 5:5; 8:34–35; 9:15; 23:20; 24:24–25; 2 Chr 34:20; Jgs 17–18; Mic 1:1; Jer 26:18.

See Micah, Book of, sec. 1.

Micaiah (who is like Yahweh?).  A prophet of northern Israel, son of Imlah.  Nothing is known of him except his single interview with king Ahab.  Possibly the unknown prophet of 1 Kgs 20:35ff.                                                            1 Kgs 22:8ff; 2 Chr 18:7–27.

Michael (who is like God?).  The name often men and also of an archangel, who was the guardian of Israel.

Nm 13:13; 1 Chr 5:11–16; 6:40; 7:3; 8:16; 12:20; 27:18; 2 Chr 21:2; Ezr 8:8; Dan 10:21; 12:1; Jude 9; Rev 12:7.

Miriam.  Sister of Aaron and Moses.  She was a prophetess and after the deliverance of the Exodus she led the women in singing and dancing.

Ex 2:4-8; 15:20-21; Nm 12; 20:1.

Moab.  Son of Lot by an incestuous union with his eldest daughter; ancestor of the Moabites.                                                          Gn 19:37; Ex 15:15

Mordecai.  A Jewish exile, living in the Persian capital, Susa, where he was employed in the palace and uncle of Esther, the queen.  He refused to bow down before Haman, the vizier, who then plotted to kill all Jews.  After succeeding Haman as vizier, he was able to protect his fellow Jews.  The Jewish feast of Purim was linked with the “day of Mordecai.”

2 Mc 15:36.                                                   See Esther, Book of, sec. 1.

Moses.  Prophet of Yahweh and leader and legislator of the Hebrews in the Exodus from Egypt to Sinai.  A Levite, he became the adopted son of an Egyptian princess and was brought up as an Egyptian while his own people lived as slaves.  He fled to Midian, where he received God’s clear call to be the leader of the Hebrews.  Returning to Egypt, he negotiated with Pharaoh and eventually led his people away from slavery, through the Red Sea, and into the Sinai Peninsula.  God made a covenant with the Hebrews (Israelites) through Moses and gave to them his Law.  He handed on the leadership to Joshua and when he had blessed Israel he climbed Mount Nebo to see the promised land before he died.

Ex 2–40; Lv; Nm; Dt; Lk 9:28–36.                          See Pentateuch, sec. 1.

Naaman (pleasant).  A military commander of the Syrian army in the reign of Ben-hadad.  Afflicted by leprosy he went to see Elisha, prophet of the God of Israel.  Elisha caused him to bathe in the dirty river Jordan and he was healed.  Thus he worshipped the God of Israel.

2 Kgs 5:1–27; Lk 4:27.

Nahum (God is compassionate).  The name of two men. (1) A prophet born at Elkosh who prophesied in the late seventh century B.C. to Judah (See Nahum, Book of, sec. 1).  (2) An ancestor of Christ.                                                             Lk 3:25.

Naomi (my delight).  Widow of Elimelech, with whom she had moved to Moab from Israel with her sons.  They married Moabite girls, who like Naomi, were soon widows.  One of them, Ruth, returned with Naomi (calling herself Mara, “bitter”) to the land of Israel.  Here Naomi arranged the marriage of Ruth with her kinsman, Boaz.                                   Ru 1–4.

Nathan (God has given).  The name of six men, the best known being the prophet of the Lord who addressed both David and Solomon.

2 Sm 5:14; 7:1–17; 1 Kgs 1; 1 Chr 2:36; 11:38; 17; Ezr 8:16; 10:39.

Nathanael (God has given).  A disciple, and if he is also called Bartholomew, then an apostle as well.                     Jn 1:45–51; 21:2.                  See Bartholomew, sec. 2.

Nebuchadnezzar.  King of Babylon, 605–562 B.C.  He intervened in the affairs of Judah and was responsible for the destruction of Jerusalem and the taking of many Jews into captivity in Babylon.

2 Kgs 24–25; 2 Chr 36; Jer 21:2; 52:4–30; Ez 26:7–14; 29:17-21; Dn 1–4.

Nehemiah (Yahweh has comforted).  The name of three men who returned from Exile to Jerusalem.  The most important was the son of Hacaliah, from whom the Book of Nehemiah takes its name.  He was a cupbearer to King Artaxerxes I of Persia; and, with the king’s approval, he traveled to Jerusalem in order to rebuild its walls and encourage the practice of true religion.                                                       Ezr 2:2; Neh 3:16; 7:7.

See Nehemiah, Book of, sec. 1.

Nicodemus (victor over the people).  A Pharisee and member of the supreme Jewish Council.  He had an important conversation with Jesus and, together with Joseph of Arimathea, had Jesus buried.                                    Jn 3:1-21; 7:50–52; 19:39–42.

Noah.  The last of the ten patriarchs who lived before the Flood.  God made a covenant with him, and in the ark he and his family survived the deluge to begin the repopulation of the earth.                                                                 Gn 6–9; 1 Pt 3:20; Lk 17:26–27

Obadiah.  The name of twelve men; they include the prophet responsible for the fourth book of the Minor Prophets and the governor of Ahab’s palace who protected the Lord’s prophets from Jezebel’s vengeance.

1 Kgs 18:3–4; 1 Chr 3:21; 7:3; 8:38; 9:44; 12:9; 2 Chr 17:7; 34:12; Neh 10:5; Ob 1.

See Obadiah, Book of, sec. 1.

Othniel.  First of the charismatic judges of the tribes of Israel after their settlement in Canaan.                                                                   Jos 15:16–17; Jdg 3:7–11.

Paul (little) formerly Saul (asked of God).  Apostle and missionary of Jesus Christ to the non-Jews of the Mediterranean world.  His letters to churches and friends occupy a large part of the NT.  As a learned Pharisee, he enthusiastically opposed Christianity until he had a vision of the exalted Jesus as he journeyed towards Damascus.  He became a Christian and after quiet preparation he began his life’s work as apostle, evangelist, teacher, and ambassador of Christ.  He insisted that non-Jews could become genuine Christians without having to become also converts to Judaism.  He was executed in Rome by Nero about A.D. 67.                                           Acts 7:58; 9–28.                               See Epistle, sec. 1.

Peter (rock) also Cephas (Aram., “rock”), Simon (Simeon).  A Galilean fisherman and disciple of Jesus.  He became the leader of the apostles and the early church.  According to tradition he was crucified upside-down in Rome.  Although he disowned Jesus at his trial, he later repented and was reinstated by the resurrected Jesus.  On the day of Pentecost, Peter preached to the crowds concerning Jesus, crucified and risen.  From that time onwards his life was spent in the service of Christ and his gospel, preaching and teaching from Jerusalem. to Rome.  Two letters in the NT bear his name.

Mt 4:18–19; 10:2; 14:28–33; 16:13–23; 17:1–9; 26:30–46; Jn 1:40–42; 18:10–11; 20:2–10; 21:1–21; Acts 1–15; Gal 1–2; 1, 2 Pt.

Pharaoh.  Title of the kings of Egypt.  At least ten are mentioned from the time of Abraham to the last king of Judah (Zedekiah); however, not all their names are known.  The only sure names are from the later period, e.g., Neco (610–585 B.C.) who killed King Josiah of Judah, and Hophra (587–570 B.C.) who supported Zedekiah’s rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar.

Gn 12:10–20; 39–50; Ex 5; 1 Kgs 9:16; 11; 2 Kgs 17:4; 19:9; 23:29–24:7; Jer 37:5; 44:30.

Philemon (loving).  A friend of Paul who lived in Colossae and owned a slave, Onesimus.

See Philemon, Epistle to, sec. 1

Philip (fond of horses).  The name of eight men.  (1) King of Macedon and father of Alexander the Great, who died in 336 B.C. (1 Mc 1:1).  (2) The fifth king of Macedon to be called Philip who was defeated by the Romans in 197 B.C. (1 Mc 8:5).  (3) Foster brother of Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Mc 6:14; 2 Mc 9:29).  (4) Philip who was made governor of Judea by Antiochus (2 Mc 5:22; 6:11).  (5) Son of Herod the Great and first husband of Herodias (Mk 6:17).  (6) Philip the Tetrarch, son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra (Lk 3:1).  (7) Philip the apostle, who came from Bethsaida.  At the Last Supper he asked Jesus to show them the Father (Mt 10:3; Jn 1:43-46; 6:5–7; 12:21–22; 14:8–9; Acts 1:13).  (8) Philip the evangelist.  One of the seven men chosen to be “deacons,” he later preached in Samaria and other places.  He baptized the Ethiopian eunuch on the road to Gaza.  His four daughters had the gift of prophecy (Acts 6:1–6; 8; 21:8–9).

Pilate.  Pontius Pilate, fifth Roman procurator in Judea (A.D. 26–37) after the removal of Archelaus in A.D. 6.  He formally condemned Jesus to death.

Mt 27; Mk 15; Lk 3:1; 13:1; 23; Jn 18–19.

Rachel (ewe).  An Aramean woman, daughter of Laban, and wife of Jacob.  She became mother of Joseph and Benjamin.                                                                   Gn 29–30; 35:18–20.

Rahab.  The name of a woman and a female monster.  (1) A harlot who lived in a house in the walls of ancient (Bronze Age) Jericho.  When two Israelite spies needed protection, she helped them and ensured they were not caught.  Later when Jericho fell to Joshua’s army, Rahab was allowed to join the Israelite people.  The NT presents her as an example of true faith (Jos 2:6,17; 22:25; 6:17,23,25; Heb 11:31; Mt 1:5).  (2) The female mythical monster of chaos, closely associated with Leviathan.  Also used of Egypt in a derisory manner (Jb 9:13; 26:12; 38:8–11; Is 30:7; Ps 87:4).

Raphael (God heals).  An angel who plays a leading role in the Book of Tobit.  He is one of the seven angels who enter the holy presence and offer to God the prayers of his covenant people.  He also appears on earth in disguise as a man to help first Tobit and then Tobit and Sarah.                                                                             Tb 3:17; 5–6; 8–9; 11–12.

Rebekah.  A native of Mesopotamia, she became the wife of Isaac and mother of Esau and Jacob.                                                                            Gn 24; 25:19–26:16; 27.

Rehoboam (expansion of the people).  Third and last king of the united kingdom, founded by David, and first king of the southern kingdom of Judah (931–913 B.C.).  Son of Solomon and Naamah.  As king he made the mistake of following his father’s policy towards the northern tribes; they did not want to be burdened and so rebelled and formed the northern kingdom of Israel under Jeroboam.

1 Kgs 11:43–14:31; 2 Chr 9:31–13:7; Mt 1:7.

Ruth.  The girl from Moab, who accompanied her mother- in-law, Naomi, to Bethlehem and there married Boaz.  Through her son, Obed, she became an ancestress of King David.

See Ruth, Book of, sec. 1.

Salome (peace).  The name of two women.  (1) The wife of Zebedee and mother of James and John.  She witnessed the crucifixion of Jesus and visited his tomb (Mt 27:56; Mk 15:40; 16:1).  (2) The daughter of Herodias who danced before Herod the Tetrarch and received the head of John the Baptist (Mt 14:3–11; Mk 6:17–28).

Samson (little sun).  A judge in Israel, known for his great strength.  From birth he was dedicated to God as a Nazirite.  Single-handedly he took on the Philistines; he gave away the secret of his strength to Delilah, whom he had married.                                  Jgs 13–16.

Samuel (the name of God).  The earliest of the great Hebrew prophets and the last of the charismatic leaders (judges) in Israel.  He was dedicated to the service of God by his mother, Hannah, and assisted the high priest, Eli, at the sanctuary in Shiloh until the latter’s death.                                                                                            1 Sm 1–4; 7–16; 18–24; 25:1.

Sarah (princess).  Wife of Abraham and mother of Isaac, her original name of Sarai (an archaic word for princess) was changed to Sarah when she received God’s promise that she would bear a son.                                     Gn 11–12; 16:1–18:15; 20–21.

Saul (asked of God).  The name of three men.  (1) A king of Edom (Gn 36:37–38).  (2) The first king of Israel.  Reckoned to be the tallest and handsomest man in Israel, as well as a great warrior, he was anointed king by Samuel.  However, his rule, which began well, deteriorated and Samuel told him that God had chosen David as king instead.  He was killed in battle against the Philistines along with his son, Jonathan (1 Sm 8–31; 2 Sm 1).  (3) Original name of the apostle Paul (Acts 7:58; 13:9).                                 See Paul, sec. 2.

Sennacherib.  King of Assyria 705–681 B.C.  He attacked Jerusalem but was unable to capture it.                                                              2 Kgs 18–19; 2 Chr 32; Is 36–37.

Shem.  Eldest son of Noah and ancestor of the Semitic peoples.            Gn 6:9–10; 10:21–23.

Silas (or Silvanus).  A leading member of the church in Jerusalem who possessed prophetical gifts.  He was sent to Antioch to welcome Gentiles into the church.  From here he went with the apostle Paul on his second missionary journey, and he shared imprisonment with him at Philippi.

Acts 15:22–41; 16; 17:1–15; 18:5; 2 Cor 1:19; 1 Thes 1:1; 2 Thes 1:1.

Simeon (God has heard).  The name of six men.  (1) The second son of Jacob and Leah, who became the ancestor of the tribe called Simeon (Gn 29:33; 46:10; 49:5–7; Nm 26:12–14 ).  (2) An ancestor of Christ who lived after David (Lk 3:30).  (3) A priest who was an ancestor of the Maccabees (1 Mc 2:1).  (4) A righteous and devout man who knew that he would not die until he had seen the Messiah (Lk 2:25–35).  ( 5) Simon Peter (Acts 15:14).  (6) A Christian prophet at Antioch who was surnamed Niger (Acts 13:1).

Simon (Gk. form of “Simeon”).  There are twelve men of this name.  (1) Simon II, high priest, who is celebrated in Sir 50:1–21.  (2) A Benjaminite who was captain of the temple guard (2 Mc 3:4–6; 4:1–6).  (3) Second son of the priest Mattathias, also called Thassi (1 Mc 2:3; 5:17, 20–23;11:59; 12:33–34).  (4) Father of Judas Iscariot (Jn 6:71; 13:26).  (5) Simon Peter, apostle (see Peter, sec. 2.).  (6) Simon the Zealot, one of the twelve apostles (Lk 6:15; Acts 1:13).  (7) One of the relatives of Jesus (Mt 13:55; Mk 6:3).  (8) A Pharisee, at whose house Jesus ate (Lk 7:36–50).  (9) A former leper who had a house in Bethany (Mt 26:6–13; Mk 14:3–9).  (10) The Cyrenian who was compelled to carry the cross of Jesus (Mt 27:32).  (11) A magician or sorcerer of Samaria (Acts 8:9–24).  (12) A tanner of Joppa in whose house Peter stayed (Acts 9:43; 10:6).

Stephen (crown).  The first Christian martyr.  One of the seven deacons, he faithfully proclaimed Christ and was arrested.  The supreme Jewish Council condemned him to death by stoning. Saul (Paul) watched this act.                                                            Acts 6–7.

Susanna.  Heroine of the story in chapter 13 of the Book of Daniel, but found only in the Greek version.  Wife of Joakim, she refused to submit to the lustful desires of two corrupt elders.  In revenge, they accused her of adultery and she was condemned to death.  Daniel, however, recognized her innocence and the two men were themselves condemned and executed.                                                                                                           Dn 13:2–63.

Tamar (palm).  The name of three women.  (1) Wife, first of Er, eldest son of Judah and then also of Onan.  After the latter’s death, she seduced Judah himself and so he fathered her twins, Perez and Zerah (Gn 38:6ff; 1 Chr 2:4).  (2) Daughter of David and Maacah.  She was violated by Amnon her half-brother and then avenged by Absalom (2 Sm 13:1ff; 1 Chr 3:9).  (3) Daughter of Absalom, named after her aunt and, like her, famed for her beauty (2 Sm 14:27).

Thomas (twin).  One of the twelve apostles.  According to tradition he was a missionary in Parthia, Persia, and India.               Jn 11:16; 14:5–7; 20:24–29; 21:1–14; Acts 1:12–14.

Timothy (worshiping God).  Companion and assistant of Paul.  His mother was a Jewish Christian, his father a Greek.  Two letters from Paul to him are in the NT.

Acts 16:1–3; 17:13–15; 1 Cor 4:17; 1 Thes 1:1; 3:1–6; 1, 2 Tm.

See Timothy, Epistles of, sec. 1.

Titus.  The names of three men.  (1) Titus Manius, Roman legate (2 Mc 11:34); (2) Titus Justus, a God-fearing Gentile (Acts 18:7); (3) a trusted companion of Paul.  Although he is not mentioned in the Acts, a letter to him is found in the NT.  The latter reveals that he labored in Crete (1 Cor 16:10; 2 Cor 2:13; 7:13–8:24; 12:18; Gal 2:1-3; 2 Tm 4:10.)

See Titus, Epistle to, sec. 1.

Tobit, Tobias (Gk. forms of Heb. Tobiah).  In the Book of Tobit, the name “Tobit” is used of the father and “Tobias” (sometimes Tobiah) of the son.  Tobit was deported from Israel to Nineveh in 721 B.C.  After experiencing many misfortunes and becoming blind, he implored the Lord to let him die.  At the same time he sent his son, Tobias, to Media to recover money he had deposited there.  Accompanying and protecting the son was Raphael, an angel in disguise.  Tobias not only regained the money but also married a woman named Sarah.  On returning to his father with the money, his wife, and some medicine made from a fish, he rubbed the latter on his father’s eyes and he was able to see again.

See Tobit, Book of, sec. 1.

Uriah (Yahweh is my light).  Four men bear this name.  (1) A Hittite who was one of David’s mighty warriors.  David committed adultery with his wife and then caused Uriah to be placed in such a vulnerable position in battle that he was killed (2 Sm 11-12; 1 Chr 11:41; Mt 1:6).  (2) A priest (2 Kgs 16:10–16).  (3) A prophet (Jer 26:20–24).  (4) The father of Meremoth (Ez 8:33).

Zadok (righteous).  A priest at king David’s court.  He had charge of the ark and took part in the anointing of Solomon as David’s successor.  He and his descendants acted as chief priests in Solomon’s Temple until its destruction in 587 B.C.

2 Sm 15:24f; 1 Kgs 1:7ff.

Zechariah (Yahweh has remembered).  There are thirty-three men of this name.  The four most important are: (1) Son of Jehoida; he lived in the reign of king Joash of Judah and was martyred because he faithfully proclaimed the judgment of the Lord upon apostasy (2 Chr 24:20–22; Lk 11:51).  (2) A king of Israel and last ruler in the dynasty of Jehu (2 Kgs 14:29; 15:8–12).  (3) A prophet and priest who was born in the Exile in Babylon.  He was a contemporary of Zerubbabel and Haggai and prophesied about 520 B.C.  (See Zechariah, Book of, sec. 1).  (4) The father of John the Baptist, husband of Elizabeth (Lk 1).

Zephaniah (Yahweh has hidden).  The name of four men, including the prophet responsible for the ninth book of the Minor Prophets.

1 Chr 6:36–38; 2 Kgs 25:18–21; Zec 6:10, 14.                See Zephaniah, Book of, sec. 1.

Zerubbabel (see of Babylon).  Grandson of king Jehoiachin of Judah, he led exiles from Babylon to Jerusalem in 537 B.C.  He was appointed governor of Judea and had the task of rebuilding the Temple, a task finished in 515 B.C.              Ezr 2:2; 3–5; Hg; and Zec 4.

Zipporah.  Daughter of Jethro, priest of Midian, and wife of Moses.  Though she apparently opposed the circumcision of their second son, Gershom, she felt compelled to perform the duty herself when she knew that Moses’ life was endangered by its not being performed.                                                                               Ex 2:21; 4:24–26; Ex 18:2.

THREE

Places, People, and Nations

Achaia.  See Greece, sec. 3.

Alexandria.  A seaport on the Nile Delta in Egypt founded in 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great.  It became a great center of trade and culture.  The Greek version of the OT known as the Septuagint was translated here.  It was the home of Apollos, an early Christian teacher.                                                                                Acts 6:9; 18:24; 27:6; 28:11.

Amalekites.  Nomadic Arabian tribe, descendants of Amalek, who lived in the desert south of Judah.  They opposed the Israelites in the days of Moses, Gideon, Samuel, David, and Hezekiah.                                              Ex 17:8; Jgs 7:12; 1 Sm 14:48; 27:8; 1 Chr 4:43.

Ammon, Ammonites.  Descendants of Ben-ammi, Lot’s younger son by his daughter.  Therefore they were to be treated as relatives by the Israelites.  In fact, they proved chronic enemies, oppressing Israel.  They were defeated by the judge, Jephthah, by Saul, and by David.  However, they later assassinated king Joash.  The prophets denounced their constant antagonism, and Nehemiah protested about marriages between Jews and Ammonites.  They lived east of the Jordan and their capital was Rabbah.

Gn 19:38; Dt 2:19; Jgs 3:13; 10:7, 11; 1 Sm 11:11; 2 Sm 10; Jer 49:1; Ez 25:1; Am 1:13; Zep 2:8; Ezr 9:1; Neh 13:23.

Amorites.  Hill people, descendants of Canaan, who were to be dispossessed by the Israelites in their occupation of the promised land.  Joshua overthrew the Amorite kings, Sihon and Og, and their territory was given to Israelites.  The Amorites were gradually absorbed, but memories of their idolatry lingered.

Gn 10:16; Ex 33:2; Nm 13:29; 32:33; Dt 20:17; Jos 12:1–3; 1 Kgs 9:20; 21:26; 2 Kgs 21:11.

Antioch.  Sixteen cities of this name were founded by Seleucus I Nicator (312–280 B.C.) in honor of his father.  Two are mentioned in the NT.  (1) Antioch of Pisidia in Phrygia, on the trade route between Ephesus and Cilicia.  Paul visited there and was expelled.  (2) Antioch on the Orontes, 300 miles north of Jerusalem, capital of the Roman province of Syria.  Here there was a strong church which was responsible for missionary outreach.

Acts 11:26; 13:1–3, 14, 50; 15:1–3, 30–41.

Aram.  OT name for Syria and north Mesopotamia.  The inhabitants were Arameans, speaking Aramaic, and were divided into several tribes, one of which became the Chaldeans.  They were referred to as descendants of Shem and figure often in the OT narrative because the Hebrew patriarchs were related by marriage to them.

Gn 10:22–23; 25:20; 31:20; Dt 26:5; 1 Chr 1:17.

Armageddon (mountain of Megiddo).  The battlefield where the kings of the whole world gather for war on the great day of God, according to Rv 16:16.  The name is framed from Megiddo, the place where great battles took place in OT times: (1) the defeat of Sisera, (2) the defeat and death of Ahaziah, and (3) the defeat and death of Josiah.  See Jgs 5; 2 Kgs 9; 2 Kgs 23; Zec 12:11.  The historical associations were used by John, the writer of the book of Revelation, to supply an appropriate name for the future sorrows and triumphs of God’s elect people.                                      Jgs 5:19; 2 Kgs 9:27; 2 Kgs 23:29; 2 Chr 35:20-24.

See Megiddo, sec. 3.

Ashdod.  One of five Philistine cities.                               Jos 11:22; 1 Sm 5:1.

See Philistines, sec. 3.

Ashkelon.  One of the five Philistine cities.                                              Jos 13:3; Am 1:8.

See Philistines, sec. 3.

Asia.  Today the continent east of Europe and Africa.  In the OT, “Asia” was used in a narrower sense for the kingdom of the Seleucidae.  In the NT, “Asia” refers to the region of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and to the Roman province that formed its western portion.

1 Mc 8:6; 11:13; Acts 2:9; 16:6; 19:10–27; 20:18; 1 Cor 16:19; Rv 1:4.

Assyria.  Country of upper Mesopotamia lying between Syria, Babylonia, Armenia, and Persia.  Assur, Nineveh, and Calah were the chief cities.  Assyria’s power reached its peak during the seventh and eighth centuries B.C.  Kings mentioned in the OT are Tiglath-pileser III (744–727), Shalmaneser V (726–722), Sargon II (721–705), Sennacherib (704–681), Esarhaddon (681–669), and Assurbanipal (669–627).  The empire fell in 612.

Gn 10:11; 2 Kgs 15:27–16:9; 18:7–8; 19; 2 Chr 33:11–13; Is 7:17–25; Na 3:7,18; Zep 2:13.

Athens.  Self-governing Greek city linked to Rome by a special treaty.  As the ancient capital of Attica (Greece), it had lost all its political grandeur but remained a center of culture and learning by the time that Paul visited it to speak on its famous hill, the Areopagus.                                                                              Acts 17:15–34; 18:1; 1 Thes 3:1.

Babylon.  Political and religious capital of Babylonia, situated on the east bank of the river Euphrates and founded by Nimrod.  The greatest king of the first Babylonian kingdom, Hammurabi (1792–1750 B.C.), is famous for his code of criminal, civil, and commercial law, bearing some resemblances to Mosaic law.  The Assyrian king, Sennacherib, sacked the city in 689 B.C.  Rebuilt by Esarhaddon it withstood a long siege by Assurbanipal.  Nebolulassar improved it (626 B.C.) and Nebuchadnezzar raised it to its peak of glory.  The city finally fell to the Persian king, Cyrus, in 539 B.C.  (In the NT Babylon is used as a code name for Rome.)

Gn 10:10; 2 Kgs 24:1; 25:7–13; 2 Chr 33:11; Is 14:4,22; 21:9; 47:1; Jer 50–51; 1 Pt 5:13; Rv 14:8; 16:19; 17:5; 18:2, 10, 21.

Beersheba.  Famous for its wells, situated fifty miles southwest of Jerusalem, where in turn Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob settled.  The phrase “from Dan to Beersheba” denotes the most northerly and southerly places in the land of Israel.

Gn 21:31; 22:19; 26:33; 28:10; Jgs 20:1; 1 Sm 3:20; 2 Chr 30:5.

Bethany.  Village two miles from Jerusalem on the Jericho road, the home of Mary, Martha, and Lazarus, as well as of Simon the Leper.  Jesus made this his base during the last week of his life.  Also a place east of Jordan where John baptized.

Mt 26:6; 21:7; Jn 1:28; 11:1.

Bethel.  Originally called Luz, twelve miles north of Jerusalem.  Abraham sacrificed here; later as a Canaanite city it was taken by the tribe of Ephraim.  The sanctuary here was chosen by Jeroboam I to rival Jerusalem; it was the center for a school of prophets in Elijah’s day, denounced for idolatry by Hosea and Amos.

Gn 28:9; 12:8; Jos 12:16; 18:22; Jgs 1:22; 1 Chr 7:28; 1 Sm 7:16; 10:3; 1 Kgs 12:26–29; 2 Kgs 2:2; Hos 4:5; Am 3:14.

Bethlehem.  The city in Judah, five miles south of Jerusalem; originally called Ephrath and the site of Rachel’s tomb; also home of Boaz and David and the place where the Messiah was born.  Also a city in Zebulun, seven miles northwest of Nazareth.

Gn 35:19; 48:7; Ru 2:4; 1 Sm 16; Mi 5:1; Mt 2:1; Jn 7:42.

Bithynia.  Roman province in northwest Asia Minor, administratively linked with Pontus to the east.  Paul and Silas were not allowed to preach here, but evidently others did.

Acts 16:7; 1 Pt 1:1.

Caesarea.  Mediterranean port, twenty-three miles south of Mount Carmel, lavishly built by Herod the Great in honor of the emperor Augustus; the Roman procurators of Judea had their headquarters here.                                                       Acts 23:23-38; 25:1–4.

Caesarea Philippi.  A city, earlier called Pancas, below Mount Hermon, beautified by Herod the Great and Philip the Tetrarch, who renamed it partly in honor of Augustus Caesar.  The scene of Peter’s confession of Christ.                                     Mt 16:13.

Calvary.  Site of the Crucifixion outside the city wall: the Latinized version of Golgotha, an Aramaic word meaning “skull.”                    Lk 23:33; Mt 27:33; Mk 15:22; Jn 19:17.

Canaan.  A Semitic people and their homeland, strictly on the south Palestine coast.  However, the term can be applied to Palestine as a whole.

Gn 10:15–19; Nm 13:17, 29; Dt 1:7; Gn 12:5.

Capernaum.  Town by the sea of Galilee, two miles west of the Jordan.  Frontier post of the tetrarchies of Herod and Philip and a Roman military base.  Home of Peter and Andrew and the “headquarters” of Jesus for the Galilean ministry.  The local people were unresponsive to his preaching.                Mt 17:24; 8:5; Mk 1:29; Mt 4:13; Lk 4:23; 10:15.

Cappadocia.  A Roman province in the east of Asia Minor.  Jews from here were present on the feast of Pentecost and its Christians were recipients of Peter’s first letter.

Acts 2:9; 1 Pt 1:1.

Cannel.  ( 1) A town in Judah, eight miles south of Hebron.  Home of Nabal and Abigail and Hezro.  On Saul’s route when he returned from defeating the Amalekites (Jos 15:55; 1 Sm 15:12; 25; 2 Sm 23:25).  (2) Range of hills, stretching for thirty miles from the Bay of Acre to Dothan.  Elijah challenged Jezebel’s gods there (1 Kgs 18:19; Sg 7:6; Am 1:2; Na 1:4).

Chaldea.  South Babylonia, the home of Abraham.  The Chaldeans were a Semitic people, a subdivision of the Arameans.                              Is 48:20; Dn 1:4; 2:10; 4:7; 5:7,11; Hb 1:6.

Chebar.  Babylonian river by which Jews were exiled; the scene of Ezekiel’s visions.

Ezek 1:1; 3:15, 23; 10:15; 43:3.

Cilicia.  Part of southeastern Asia Minor.  Tarsus, Paul’s home town, was the leading city.

Act 6:9; 15:23, 41; 27:5; 21:39; 22:3; 23:34; Gal 1:21.

Colossae.  A city in Phrygia in the Lycus valley (western Asia Minor), ten miles from Laodicea on the main road to the East.  Members of the church here included Philemon, his slave Onesimus, and Epaphras.                                              Col 1:2; 4:9; 12; Phlm 1, 10.

See Colossians, Epistle of Paul to, sec. 1.

Corinth.  Busy commercial city on the central isthmus of Greece, capital of the Roman province of Achaia.  Paul’s stay of eighteen months, unusually long for him, occurred around A.D. 52.  Two-thirds of this cosmopolitan city were slaves and its immorality was proverbial.                      Acts 18.                      See Corinthians, Epistles of Paul to, sec. 1.

Damascus.  Capital of Syria (or Aram) astride trading routes from Egypt and Arabia to the East.  Continuously occupied from prehistoric times, it was captured by David and later by the Assyrians.  Here Paul was converted to Christ.

2 Sm 8:5; 1 Kgs 11:24; 20:34; 2 Kgs 16:9; 1 Chr 18:5; Is 7:8; 17:1; Amos 1:5; Acts 9.

Dead Sea.  Inland lake, forty-seven miles long and three to nine miles wide, fed by the Jordan.  At 1293 feet below sea level, it is the lowest body of water in the world.  With no outlet the water is lost only by evaporation.  The density of minerals in the water makes it five times saltier than the sea, and no fish or plants live in it.  Called also Sea of Arabah and Salt Sea.                                                                         Gn 14:3; Dt 4:49; Ez 47:8–12, 18.

Decapolis.  From 63 B.C. a federation of ten cities, all but one east of the Jordan.  Gerasa and Damascus are mentioned in the NT.  Pella was the refuge to which Jewish Christians fled in the Jewish-Roman war of A.D. 70.

Mt 4:25; Mk 5:20; 7:31; 13:14; Acts 9:2.

Ebal, Mount.  See Gerizim, sec. 3.

Eden, Garden of.  Abode of Adam and Eve at their creation, but from which they were expelled on account of their sin.  Its beauty was proverbial.  Also called the garden of God and garden of the Lord.               Gn 2:8; 3:23; Ez 28:13; 31:8–9; 18; 36:35; J12:3; Is 51:3.

Edom.  The land, south of the Dead Sea, occupied by the descendants of Esau (Edom); formerly Seir.                                 Gn 25:30; 32:3f; Nm 20:18; Am 1:6; Mal 1:4.

Egypt.  A country dating back to 4000 B.C., occupying the northeast corner of Africa, mainly desert except where watered by the Nile.  The pyramids date from around 2650 B.C.  The foreign Hyksos occupied the land about 1700 B.C., but the ruler retained the title of Pharaoh.  The Joseph stories in Genesis belong to this period.  The Egyptians ousted the Hyksos about 1560 B.C. and all aliens became suspect.  The next 500 years again saw the expansion of its empire to the river Euphrates.  Then decline set in and the Hebrew prophets continually warned Israel not to rely on Egyptian help.

Ex 1:8; Is 30:2; Jer 2:18; Ez 30:6; Gn 12:10,14; Gn 37–50; Ex 1–15.

Ekron.  One of the five Philistine cities.

1 Sm 4:11; 5:10; 7:14. See Philistines, sec. 3.

Elam.  An ancient mountainous land to the east of Babylonia with its capital at Susa (Shushan).  The conquering Assyrians deported some Elamites to Samaria and some Israelites to Elam in the period of the Israelite monarchy.  Although they were not Semites, Jews went to live among them and some were in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost.

Gn 14:1; Is 11:11; 21:2; Jer 25:25; Ezr 4:9; Acts 2:9.

Ephesus.  In NT time the major port in Roman Asia Minor; now six miles from the sea, due to silting by the river Cayster.  Its great open-air theatre seated 25,000 and its magnificent temple to the goddess Artemis was famous.  Paul visited in A.D. 52 and returned later, eventually putting Timothy in charge of the church there.  The church in Ephesus is the first addressed in the seven letters of Revelation.

Acts 19; 1 Cor 16:8; 1 Tm 1:3; Rv 2:1–7.

Ethiopia.  Not the modern state but part of the kingdom of Nubia, stretching from present-day Khartoum to Aswan; often called Cush after the original settlers. Ethiopian armies were defeated by Asa, supported Hezekiah against Sennacherib, conquered Egypt, were beaten at Carchemish in 605 B.C., and were defeated by the Persians.

Gn 10:6; 2 Chr 14:9-15; 2 Kgs 19:9; Is 37:9; Jer 46:2,9; Na 3:9; Est 1:1.

Euphrates.  The largest river in west Asia, running 1250 miles to the Persian Gulf.  It is mentioned throughout the Bible from Genesis to Revelation.  The river of Dt 11:24.

Gn 2:14; Ex 23:31; Jer 2:18; Rv 9:14.

Galatia.  Northern region of modern central Turkey, named after the Celtic inhabitants (invaders from Gaul).  A Roman province included this area and some southern regions and was called Galatia.  Paul wrote his epistle to either the northern or southern region.

See Galatia, Epistle of Paul to, sec. 1.

Galilee.  The upland region in north Palestine, west of the Jordan and Sea of Galilee; the scene of Jesus’ upbringing and early ministry, and of a later resurrection appearance.

Mt 28:16; Mk 1:9, 39.

Galilee, Sea of.  A pear-shaped lake, thirteen miles long and eight miles wide, fed by the Jordan.  Also known as the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth, the Sea of Genessaret, and the Sea of Tiberias.  With some twenty-eight varieties of fish, the waters supported a flourishing fishing industry.  Due to the height of the surrounding hills, contrasts in temperature give rise to sudden, intense storms.  The ministry of Jesus is associated with several towns on its shores.

Nm 34:11; Js 12:3; Mt 4:13; 8:27; 14:22, 34; Lk 5:1; 8:32; Jn 6:23; 21:1.

Gath.  One of the five Philistine cities, the home of Goliath.

1 Sm 17:4.                                         See Philistines, sec. 3.

Gaza.  The most southerly of the five Philistine cities.  The scene of one of Samson’s exploits and his end.                                    Jgs 16.                        See Philistines, sec. 3.

Gerizim.  One of the two mountains (the other is Ebal) overlooking Shechem and known as the mount of blessing.  Jotham addressed the Shechemites from a ledge halfway up, where acoustics are remarkable.  It was the sacred mountain of the Samaritans.

Dt 11:29; 27:4,13; Jos 8:33; Jgs 9:7; Jn 4:20.                              See Samaritans, sec. 4.

Gethsemane.  An estate, at the foot of the Mount of Olives and to the east of Kidron, which witnessed the agony of Jesus before his Crucifixion.  Gethsemane means “an oil-press.”

Mt 26:36; Mk 14:32.

Gilead.  Hilly area east of the Jordan, divided by the Jabbok into two parts: the southern part assigned to the tribe of Gad and the northern part to Manasseh.  It was well suited for grazing flocks and herds and for growing the spice known as “balm of Gilead.”

Dt 3:16–17; Nm 32; Jos 12:2; 13:24–31; Jer 8:22.

Gilgal.  The name of several places but primarily of the site between Jericho and the river Jordan where the Israelites made their first encampment after crossing the Jordan.  It became their headquarters for the subsequent conquest of Canaan as well as a holy place where sacrifice was offered to God.

Jos 4:19–24; 15:17; 1 Sm 7:6; 11:15; 13:4–15; 2 Sm 19:15, 40; 2 Kgs 2:1–4; Hos 4:15; 9:15; 12:11; Amos 4:4; 5:5.

Greece.  In NT times “Greece” refers to the Roman province of Achaia, made up of the whole of the Peloponnesus, with continental Greece south of Illyricum, Epirus, and Thessaly.  Corinth was the capital and the residence of the proconsul, who ruled it.

Acts 18:12,27; 19:21; Rom 15:26; 2 Cor 1:1; 9:2; 1 Thes 1:7–8.

Greek Empire.  Alexander I (the Great), ruler of the whole of Greece, overthrew the Persian Empire.  He followed up his conquests with the enthusiastic importation of the Greek language, culture, and civilization.  When he died in 323 B.C. his empire was divided among his generals.  The Jews in Palestine found themselves between the Seleucid Empire in Syria and Mesopotamia and the Ptolemaic Empire of Egypt for 250 years.  The persecutions of the Maccabean period were due to the policy of Hellenization (enforcement of Greek ideas, values, and culture).  In the century before Christ the Roman Empire replaced the Greek Empires.                                                                1, 2 Mc.

Haran (Harran). A city of Mesopotamia by the river Balih; a commercial center on the main trade route between Babylonia and the Mediterranean.  Abraham and Terah, as well as Jacob, lived here and it was the home of Rebekah.

Gn 11:31–32; 12:4–5; 8:10; 29:4–5; 2 Kgs 19:12; Is 37:12; Ez 27:23.

Hebron.  The highest town in Palestine.  Abraham lived nearby and his family was buried in the field of Machpelah nearby.  During the conquest of the land by the Israelites, Hebron was taken by Caleb and given to his family.  It was in this town that David was anointed king and it became, in the period of the monarchy, an important administrative center.  After the Babylonian exile Jews returned to it but it was burnt by the Romans in the war A.D. 66–70.

Gn 23; 29:31; 50:13; Nm 13:22; Jos 14:12ff; 15:13-14; 2 Sm 2:4; 5:3; Neh 11:25; 1 Mc 5:65.

Hermon.  The highest mountain (over 9,000 ft.) in the Anti-Lebanon range, also called Sirion and Senir (Shenir).  It constituted the northeastern limit of the Israelite conquests under Joshua.  It is possible that the Transfiguration occurred on its slopes.

Dt 3:8–9; Jos 11:3, 17; 12:1; Ps 42:6; 133:3; Mt 17:1

Hittites.  An Indo-European race who controlled eastern Turkey and Syria from about 1600 to 1200 B.C. and whose capital city was Hattusha (near Ankara).  The latter has recently been excavated, providing valuable information.  When this Empire collapsed, various outposts continued in northern Syria but most of the Hittites intermarried with other local peoples.                                                      Gn 23; Jos 1:4; 1 Kgs 10:29–11:1; 2 Kgs 7:6.

Hivites, Horites, and Hurrians.  A people known to us from 2500 B.C. who lived in the Fertile Crescent of Babylonia and became a part of the Hittite Empire.

Gn 14:6; 34:2; Jos 9:3–7.

Israel, Israelites.  Originally the new name of Jacob, it was applied later to the whole body of his descendants (“house of Israel,” “sons of Israel”) and more particularly of the ten tribes which constituted the kingdom of Israel after the schism led by Jeroboam.  The land of Israel “from Dan to Beersheba” was small, less than 150 miles in length and never more than 50 miles in width.  The kingdom of Israel (in contrast to that of Judah) had two-thirds of the land in the north and had two shrines, one at Dan and another at Bethel, with the capital at Samaria.  This kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 721 B.C. and a large number of people were carried away into Assyria.

Ex 32:4; Dt 4:1; 27:9; 2 Chr 11:13–14; 2 Kgs 17:7–8, 15; Hos 2:13; 4:2, 11, 15; Am 2:6–9.

See also Judah, Samaria, sec. 3.

Jabbok.  A tributary of the Jordan flowing from the east, rising near modern Amman and called now the Wadi Zerqa.                                     Gn 32:22; Nm 21:21f; Dt 3:16.

Jericho.  This “city of palm trees,” 820 feet below sea level and 17 miles east of Jerusalem, has had a continuous history from c. 8000 B.C., making it one of the world’s oldest cities.  However, the actual site of the city changed in late OT times so that the Jericho Jesus visited was not on the same site as that which Joshua beseiged and captured.  It is first mentioned in the Bible with reference to the capture of Canaan by the Israelites under Joshua.  By that time it had already been built and rebuilt many times.  Herod the Great made it important because of his building in and near Jericho.  It was the city as restored by Herod that Jesus visited.

Dt 34:1,3; Jgs 3:13; Jos 5:13–6:27; 2 Kgs 2:5; 25:5; Ezr 2:34; Neh 7:36; 1 Mc 9:50; Mt 20:29; Lk 18:35; 19:1–2.

Jerusalem.  In the tenth century B.C. this Jebusite (Canaanite) city high in the hills of Judah (at 2500 ft) was taken by David to become the capital and holy city of the Jews.  His son, Solomon, made it a great city through his building program, including a temple, a palace, and walls.  During the period of the divided monarchy, Jerusalem was the capital of Judah only.  It was attacked several times and eventually fell to king Nebuchadnezzar in 586 B.C., when the city was laid waste and the Temple destroyed.  Many Jews were taken away into captivity.

      In 538 B.C. a group of exiles returned and laid the foundation of a new Temple; later the walls of the city were rebuilt by Nehemiah.  At this time Jerusalem was in the Persian Empire.  Later, in the period of the Greek empires, it once more experienced war and desolation.  In 170 B.C. the Temple was desecrated by Antiochus Epiphanes, but it was soon recaptured and purified by the Maccabees.  Then came the Roman Empire and under its rule, Herod the Great was able to make Jerusalem into a splendid city once again, with a rebuilt Temple.  This was the Jerusalem which Jesus knew; it lasted until A.D. 70 when the Romans destroyed it and the Temple.  Christianity began in Jerusalem and spread throughout the Roman Empire.

Gn 14:18; Jos 15:63; 2 Sm 5; 1 Kgs 6; 14:25-26; 2 Kgs 12:18; 18:13-19:36; 25; Ezr 5; Neh 3–6; Ps 48; 122; 1 Mc 4; Lk 2; 19:28–49; Acts 2; 15.

Jordan.  The most important river in Palestine and thus intimately associated with the origins and history of both Judaism and Christianity.  Rising twelve miles north of Lake Huleh it flows through this lake and the Sea of Galilee, then down to the Dead Sea.  The straight-line distance is just over 100 miles, but because of its meandering its actual length is over 200 miles.  Further, for most of its course it is below sea level.  The Israelite tribes had to cross this river to begin their conquest of Canaan.  John the Baptist called Jews, including Jesus, to this river for baptism.               Jos 3:1–17; 4:1–24; 2 Kgs 5:14; Mt 3:6,17.

Judah, kingdom of.  The territory of the tribe of Judah and Benjamin including the people who remained faithful to the Davidic line at the division of the monarchy after Solomon’s death.  It was situated in southern Palestine with Jerusalem as capital and lasted from about 931 to 586 B.C., having nineteen kings of David’s line.  Because of false worship in the northern kingdom of Israel, not a few immigrants came south to Judah.  As a small nation it had Egypt as a powerful neighbor in the southwest, and during the eighth and seventh centuries it had to reckon with the power of Assyria.  From 605 B.C. the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar sought to subjugate Judah; its collapse occured in 586 B.C.  After the Exile in Babylon, a weak Judah (also called Judea) existed under the Persian, Greek, Ptolemaic, Seleucid, and Roman rule with some independence under the Maccabees.

1 Kgs 12; 2 Kgs 25; Ez–Neh; 1, 2 Mc.

Judea.  The Greek and Roman name for Judah, usually referring to the southern part of Palestine.

Kadesh-barnea.  An oasis containing a spring of water that flows all year, situated at the southern end of Palestine.  Abraham lived here for a time and the Hebrews in their desert wanderings twice encamped here.

Gn 14:7; 16:14; Nm 20:13f; 33:36; Dt 1:19–25; Jos 10:41; 15:23.

Kidron (Cedron).  A valley between the eastern wall of Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives.  It may be followed all the way from there to the Dead Sea.  Those who travel from the city to Bethany and Jericho must cross it; water is found there only after heavy rain.

2 Sm 15:23; 1 Kgs 15:13; 2 Chr 29:16; 23:4; Jn 18:1.

Lachish.  A fortified city covering eighteen acres in the lowland of southern Palestine, thirty miles southwest of Jerusalem.  Its king was defeated by Joshua in the Hebrew conquest of Palestine.  Later, as a city of the kingdom of Judah, it was besieged first by Sennacherib of Assyria and then by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and was destroyed.  It was later reoccupied and came near to its former size and influence.  Important archaeological discoveries have been made here.

Jos 10:3–35; 12:11; 2 Kgs 14:19; Kgs 18:14,17; 19:18; 14:10–25:20; 2 Chr 11:9; 25:27; Neh 11:30.

Lebanon.  The name of a snow-clad mountain range in Syria as well as of the fertile area between it and the Mediterranean.  The mountains had forests of large cedars, and also firs and cypresses.  The wood was used for building houses and palaces as well as ships.  The Phoenician ports of Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos prospered through exporting the wood and produce of this area.      

Jer 18:14; 1 Kgs 5:6–10; 2 Kgs 19:23; Ps 72:6; Is 2:13; 14:8; Ez 31.

Macedonia.  A country north of Greece which came into prominence and then world dominion under Philip (359–336 B.C.) and Alexander the Great (336–323 B.C.).  In 168 B.C. it fell to the Romans and became a Roman province in 148 B.C.: the cities of Philippi, Beroea, and Thessalonica were part of it. Paul, Silas, and Timothy evangelized here.

Acts 16:8–17:15; 20:1–6; 2 Cor 8:1–5; 9:1–5; Phil 4:15; 1, 2 Thes.

Media.  A country in Asia, now northwest Iran; inhabitants known as Medes.  Israelites were transported to the cities of Media when Samaria fell to the Assyrians in 721 B.C.  The empire of the Medes gave way to that of the Persians.  Later it was the Medes and the Persians who overthrew the Babylonian Empire.

2 Kgs 17:6; 18:11; Is 13:17; 21:2,9; Jer 51:11,28; Dan 5:28; 8:20; Acts 2:9.

Megiddo.  An important Palestinian city, captured by Joshua from the Canaanites.  It was strategically important, commanding the pass through the mountains between the Plains of Sharon and Esdraelon.  Solomon extended and fortified it.  Excavations have revealed stables for 450 horses.  It was the scene of great battles, e.g., between Pharaoh Neco and king Josiah.                     Jos 12:21; 1 Kgs 9:15,19; 10:26; 2 Kgs 23:29; 2 Chr 35:22; Rv 16:16.

See also Armageddon, sec. 3.

Mesopotamia.  A Greek name appearing after the time of Alexander the Great and referring to the whole area between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris.  The older name was Aram.                                                                              Jdt 2:24; 5:7–8; 8:26; Acts 2:9; 7:2.

Midian.  A region in Arabia near the Gulf of Aqaba and bordered on the northwest by Edom.  Moses married a Midianite woman; later the Israelites and Midianites were enemies.

Gn 25:2–4; Ex 2:15–22; Nm 22:4; 25:1,6; Jos 13:21; Jgs 6:1–40; 8:5, 10–11.

Moab.  The region east of the Dead Sea with the northern border at the Amon inhabited by the descendants of Moab, Lot’s son.  It was a rolling plateau, some 3,200 feet above sea level.  Originally the country included what were called “the Plains of Moab,” the area east of the Jordan opposite Jericho.  The Moabites became a settled people before the Israelites settled in Canaan and were often at war with them.

Gn 19:37–38; Nm 21:11–13; Jgs 3:12-30; 1 Sm 14:47; 2 Sm 8:2,12; 1 Chr 8:2,11; 2 Kgs 13:20; 24:2; Is 15; 16; Jer 48; Am 2:1–2.

Nabateans.  An Arabian tribe who settled in the former territory of Edom and Moab by the fourth century B.C., the capital of which was Petra.  The civilization prospered through their own ingenuity in the use of the land and also through imposing duties on the goods passing along the trade routes through the land.  They managed to remain independent of Rome with their own line of kings until A.D. 106.                         1 Mc 5:25; 9:35.

Nazareth.  Not mentioned in the OT, it was the town in Galilee, eighty-eight miles north of Jerusalem, where Mary and Joseph lived and where Jesus was brought up.  However, in the period of his public ministry, the townspeople rejected him.

Mt 2:23; 4:13; 13:54-58; Mk 6:1–6; Lk 2:39; 4:28–32.

Nineveh.  An ancient city on the east bank of the river Tigris at the mouth of a small tributary known as the Khoser.  Its deity was the goddess Ishtar and her temple there dated from c. 2400 B.C.  Under king Sennacherib it became the capital of Assyria (from c. 700 B.C.) and to it the Assyrians brought the spoils of war.  King Assurbanipal gathered a magnificent library there around 650 B.C.  The city was totally destroyed by the Medes in 612 B.C.                 Gn 10:11–12; Jon 1:2; 3:3; Jdt 1:1; 2 Kgs 19:36; Na 1–3; Zep 2:13–15.

Olives, Mount of.  A hill to the east of Jerusalem, separated from the city by the Valley of Kidron.  David went up this mountain while fleeing from Absalom, Ezekiel had a vision there, and Jesus often went up and down it.

2 Sm 15:14; Ez 11:23; Zec 14:4; Mt 21:1; 26:30; Lk 21:37; 22:39; Jn 8:1; Acts 1:12.

Persia.  In a general sense Persia was the land with boundaries at the Persian Gulf, the valley of the Tigris, the Caspian Sea and the rivers Oxus, Jaxartes, and Indus.  The Persian Empire, which replaced that of the Babylonians and Medes and was itself replaced by that of Alexander the Great, stretched from India to Greece.  Persians were Aryan people, closely related to the Medes; their religion was Zoroastrianism.  They are only mentioned in the later books of the OT; it was their king Cyrus the Great who was responsible for the resettlement of Jerusalem from 538 B.C.

2 Chr 36:22–23; Ezr 1; 4; Est 10:2; 1 Mc 3:31; 6; Dn 10.

Philippi.  A city in Macedonia, located eight miles from the sea and named after its founder, Philip II of Macedon.  It became part of the Roman Empire in 167 B.C. and after 42 B.C. was a Roman colony, subject to Roman law.  Paul and Silas visited on the first missionary journey and founded the first church in Europe there.  Later Paul revisited and wrote a letter to the young church.                                 Acts 16:6–40; 20:6; Phil 1:1; 1 Thes 2:2.

See Philippians, Epistle to, sec. 1.

Philistines.  A people from southwestern Asia Minor who reached Palestine via Crete by the twelfth century B.C.  They introduced iron into the region but also adopted Canaanite culture and religion.  Their gods – Dagon and Baal-zebub – bear Semitic names.  The five fortified cities of Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath were the major centers from which they conducted warfare over eight centuries against the Israelites.  By NT times they seem to have disappeared as a separate people.

Jgs 13–16; 1 Sm 4–6; 13:19–22; 1 Kgs 5:1; 2 Kgs 18:8; 1 Mc 5:66–68.

Phoenicia.  The narrow coastal strip of 250 miles from Mount Carmel to Jebel Akron (Mount Casius) between the Lebanon range and the Mediterranean Sea; its chief city-states were Tyre and Sidon.  Its inhabitants, the Phoenicians, were a Semitic people with a religion like that of the Canaanites.  They were heavily involved in trade and commerce in the Mediterranean.  Jesus visited this area.

2 Mc 3:5–8; Mt 15:21; Mk 7:24–31; Acts 11:19;15:3; 21:2–3.

Pithom.  A city in Egypt on whose construction the Hebrew slaves worked.  It was used as a store-city.                                                                                                      Ex 1:11.

Rameses.  A city in Egypt, named after Pharaoh Rameses II, on which the Hebrew slaves worked.  It was also the place from where they began their journey to the promised land (Canaan).                                                             Ex 1:11; 12:37; Nm 33:3,5.

Red Sea.  This expression is used both of (1) that sea which today is called the Red Sea (between the continent of Africa and the peninsula of Arabia) and (2) the “sea of reeds,” a lake in the area where the Suez canal is now found (and the original lakes drained).  In the Exodus the Israelites probably crossed (2).

(1) Nm 14:25; 21:4; Dt 1:40; 2:1; 1 Kgs 9:2; 2 Chr 8:17; (2) Ex 10:19; 15:4,22; Nm 33:10f; Dt 11:4.

Roman Empire.  The birth and crucifixion of Jesus Christ took place under Roman rule for Judea had been subject to Rome since 63 B.C.  That rule was exercised in Palestine through the appointment of local kings (e.g., Herod) or officials from Rome (e.g., Pilate).  The Christian church was able to expand quickly because Roman peace, roads, and security, as well as the general use of the Greek language (inherited from the previous Greek Empire) extended throughout the Mediterranean world.  It had a strong center in Rome itself.  However, the arrogance of Roman imperialism posed a threat to the confession of Christ as Lord in the later NT period.

1 Mc 8; Jn 11:48; Acts 28:17–18; Rom 1:15; 1 Pt 2:13 cf Rv 17:6, 14.

Samaria.  Used in three ways.  (1) As the capital of the kingdom of Israel from the time of king Omri, its builder, to its fall to the Assyrians in 721 B.C.  It was often a center for idolatry and was promised divine judgment by various prophets.  It was rebuilt by Herod the Great (1 Kgs 16:24; 2 Kgs 17:3–6; Is 7:9; 8:4).  (2) The territory occupied by the ten tribes of the kingdom of Israel (1 Kgs 13:32; 2 Kgs 17:24).  (3) A district in central Palestine under Roman administration (Lk 17:11; Jn 4:4; Acts 8:5).

See Samaritans, sec. 4.

Shechem.  An important city in central Palestine visited by the patriarchs.  After the Israelite conquest of Canaan, Joshua supervised the renewal of the covenant with the Lord there.  It became a city of refuge and a levitical city.  After Solomon’s death, the assembly of Israel made Jeroboam king here, and it served for a short time as the capital of the kingdom of Israel.  After the Babylonian Exile, Shechem was the chief city of the Samaritans and in the Greek period (c. 300–100 B.C.) it was a thriving city.

Gn 12:6–7; 33:18–19; 34:25–26; 35:1–4; Jos 8:30–35; 24; 20:7; 21:21; 1 Kgs 12:1–19; 1 Chr 6:67.

Shiloh.  A town in the central Palestine mountain range.  Here, in the period after the Conquest the Tabernacle was kept and the people assembled as the tribes of the Lord.  However, c. 1050 B.C. the Philistines captured the Ark of the covenant and destroyed the city, an event interpreted as God’s judgment.

Jos 18:1–10; 22:9–12; Jgs 18:3; 21:19–21; 1 Sm 1–4; Ps 78:60; Jer 7:12, 14.

Sinai.  The mountain (also called Horeb) at which the Hebrews arrived after crossing the Red Sea and journeying for three months from Egypt.  From this mountain God gave his Law to Moses and at its base the covenant between the Lord and the Israelites was made.  The precise location is not certain but probably in the area now called the Sinai Peninsula.

Ex 19:1–2; 20:1–24:8; 1 Kgs 19:8; Acts 7:30, 38.

Sodom.  One of the five cities in the Plain of the Jordan, chosen by Lot as his residence.  With other cities it was destroyed, but Lot and his two daughters were spared.  The name became a symbol for organized wickedness.

Gn 13:10–13; 14:11, 17–24; 19:1–19; Dt 29:23; Is 1:9–10; Mt 10:15; 11:24; 2 Pt 2:6; Jude 7; Rv 11:8.

Syria.  Abbreviation of Assyria and the name of the most important province in the Greek kingdom of the Seleucids.  In 64 B.C. this became a Roman province, designating the part of western Asia with boundaries at the Taurus Mountains in the north, the Euphrates in the east, Palestine in the south, and the Mediterranean in the west.

1 Mc 11:2,60; Mt 4:24; Lk 2:2; Acts 15:23,41; 18:18; 20:3; 21:3; Gal 1:21.

Thessalonica.  Named after Thessalonike, sister of Alexander the Great, and founded as Macedonia became the center of a great empire.  It became the principal metropolis of Macedonia, being situated on the great trade routes from Italy to the East and from the Aegean to the Danube.  Paul evangelized here and wrote two letters to the church he founded.                                                                             Acts 17:1–9; 1, 2 Thes.

Tigris.  Also called Hiddekel, this river of Mesopotamia is 1146 miles long, flowing from the Armenian mountains into the Euphrates and thence into the Persian Gulf.  One of the four rivers marking the location of the Garden of Eden.

Gn 2:14; Dn 10:4; Tb 6:1.

Ur of the Chaldees.  The city on the banks of the Euphrates which Terah and Abraham left to go to Haran, beginning the patriarchal pilgrimage.  Excavations have revealed a rich civilization there.                                                                   Gn 11:28,31; 15:7; Neh 9:7.

FOUR

Religion (Cults, Institutions, Parties)

Abomination of Desolation (or the horrible abomination, the desolating sacrilege).  A phrase from the book of Daniel used to describe the action of Antiochus Epiphanes, who in 167 B.C. desecrated the Jerusalem Temple by installing an altar of Zeus.  By this act the divine presence was withdrawn and true worship had to cease.  Jesus warned of the repetition of such an event and Paul applied the phrase to Antichrist.

Dn 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; 1 Mc 1:54, 59; 2 Mc 6:2; Mt 24:15; Lk 21:20; 2 Thes 2:3–4.

Altar.  A place of meeting with God where the worshiper offered a gift of sacrifice.  First mentioned after the Flood, altars were built of earth, unhewn stone, or wood overlaid with bronze in order to be fireproof.  They were erected by Abram, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Balaam, Elijah, David, Solomon, and Ahaz.  Unlawful altars were condemned.

Gn 12:7; 26:25; 33:20; Ex 17:15; Nm 23:1; 1 Kgs 18:32; 2 Sm 24–25; 2 Chr 4:1; 2 Kgs 16:10.

Altar of burnt offering.  A hollow, square altar made of acacia word covered with bronze, with four bronze horns at the corners, placed in the outer court of the Tabernacle and Temple in order to be accessible.  The fire on it was kept permanently lit.

Ex 27:1–8; 1 Kgs 8:64; 2 Chr 7:7.

Altar of incense. A square altar made of acacia wood and overlaid with gold and with horns of gold, for the burning of the holy incense.

Ex 30:1-10; Lev 2:2; 16; Lk 1:11.

Anointing.  Consecrated oil was poured on to people and objects to signify their being set apart for God and his service.  Thus places of worship, kings, priests, and prophets were anointed.  Further, the action is associated with the gift of the Holy Spirit.

Ex 30:22f; 40:9f; 1 Sm 16:13; 2 Sm 2:4; 1 Kgs 19:16; Acts 10:38.

Ark, Noah’s.  Vessel of gopher wood, reeds, and bitumen, built according to divine instructions for the preservation of Noah and his family, together with a selection of animals, from the judgment of the Flood.                                                Gn 6–9; 1 Pt 3:20.

Ark of the covenant.  Rectangular box of acacia wood, covered with gold.  Its lid (mercy seat) was of solid gold, surmounted by two cherubim with outstretched wings.  Details for its construction were divinely revealed to Moses and undertaken by Bezalel at Sinai.  It contained the two tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments, a pot of manna, and Aaron’s rod.  When Solomon’s Temple was destroyed in 587 B.C. the ark was lost and thus there was no ark in the Second Temple.  It had been kept in the inner sanctuary (the holy of holies).                                                                                          Ex 25; 37:1; Lv 16:2.

Artemis.  Greek goddess of the moon and of hunting (Diana to the Romans).  Her temple at Ephesus was one of the seven wonders of the world.  By tradition her image (probably a meteorite) fell out of the sky.  When Paul’s preaching threatened to bring a slump in the local trade in small votary shrines, the silversmiths staged a riot.              Acts 19:24f.

Ashtaroth.  Canaanite mother-goddess of fertility, love, and war, especially prominent in Sidon: the depraved cult attracted the Israelites.  Also the name of the capital city of Og, king of Bashan.                                            Dt 1:4; Jgs 2:13; 10:6; 1 Sm 7:3–4.

Astrologers.  Astrologers are mentioned together with magicians and enchanters in the Book of Daniel and as students of the stars in Matthew’s birth narrative.

Dn 2:27; 4:7; 5:7–11; Mt 2:1,7,16.

Atonement, Day of.  Annual solemn fast on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishri, September-October), reminding the Jews that the many daily, weekly, and monthly sacrifices of the Temple were insufficient to atone for sin.  On this one day, the high priest, dressed in a simple white robe, entered the holy of holies (after both he and the sanctuary had been ceremonially cleansed).  There he burnt incense and sprinkled blood on the mercy seat ( lid of the Ark) to make atonement for the priesthood.  Blood from a sacrificed goat was also sprinkled in the holy of holies, this time for the people.  Further, he laid his hands upon a second, living goat, confessing over it the sins of Israel.  This scapegoat was then driven into the wilderness, symbolizing the carrying away of their sins.

Lv 16; Heb 13:11–12.

Baal.  OT term for Canaanite nature and fertility gods, led by Hadad, the storm god.  The Baal challenged by Elijah on Mount Carmel was Melqart, god of Tyre.  The Baal fertility cults constantly infected Israel’s worship of their covenant God and brought strong condemnation from the prophets.               Jgs 6:25,28,30; 1 Kgs 18; Jer 7:9; Hos 2:10.

Baptism.  The act of immersing a person in water, or pouring water over the head, as an act of cleansing or initiation.  The Jews baptized Gentile converts to Judaism: John the Baptist caused a sensation by baptizing Jews, a practice continued by Jesus and his disciples.  In the church, at Jesus’ command, baptism became the rite of union with Jesus himself and entry into the church.                                                                      See Baptism, Christian, sec. 6.

Bishop.  The overseer of a church, equivalent in the NT to elder or presbyter.

Phil 1:1; 1 Tm 3:1; Ti 1:5,7.

Booths, Feast of.  One of the three annual Jewish pilgrimage festivals, also called the feast of tabernacles and of ingathering.  Sacrifices were offered on seven days (15–22 of the seventh month, Tishri) with a special celebration on the eighth day.  While coinciding with the completion of harvest, the historic significance was a reminder of the nomad life after the deliverance from Egypt.                           Lv 23:33f; Dt 16:13f; 2 Chr 8:13; Jn 7:2.

Burnt Offering.  A sacrifice wholly burnt, except for the skin, to atone for sins.  The victim had to be a clean animal, without blemish; sacrifices were offered daily.

Lv 1; 7:8; Nm 28–29.

Calf, golden.  (1) The idolatrous image made by Aaron and the Israelites and then destroyed by Moses on his return from Mt. Sinai (Ex 32).  (2) After the division of the kingdom, Jeroboam I set up two golden calves at Bethel and Dan, in Israel, as centers of worship to divert attention from the temple of Jerusalem in the kingdom of Judah.  Hosea prophesied their destruction (1 Kgs 12:28; 2 Kgs 10:29; Hos 8:6).

Cereal Offering.  A sacrifice of flour, baked cakes, or plain grain, with oil, frankincense, and salt, accompanied by wine. No leaven or honey was to be used. A portion was burnt at the altar and the rest went to the priests. In the case of the poor, it could replace a burnt offering.                                                                             Lv 2:1-16; 23:13; Nm 5:11f.

Chemosh.  Moabite god: child sacrifice was practiced by his worshipers.  Solomon’s high place for Chemosh in Jerusalem was destroyed by Josiah.

Nm 21:29; 1 Kgs 11:7; 2 Kgs 3:27; 23:13; Jer 48:13.

Circumcision.  The ancient custom of removing the foreskin, practiced in Israel and also in Egypt, Edom, Ammon, and Moab, but not among Assyrians, Babylonians, or Philistines.  It symbolized covenant membership within a community.  Carried out by Jews on the eighth day after birth, even if that were a sabbath: metaphorically it described loyalty to God.  In the church, circumcision was not required of Gentiles.

Gn 17:10; Lv 12:3; Jn 7:22; Gal 2:3; 5:1–12; Col 2:11.

Clean and unclean.  In Mosaic law, that which allowed or disqualified a worshiper from approaching God.  Ceremonial defilement came by contact with a dead body or with leprosy, through certain bodily functions (e.g., menstruation), or through eating animals listed as unclean.  Provision for cleansing was defined in each case.

Lev 10:10; 11–15; Nm 19:11; Dt 14.

Council of Jerusalem.  The meeting in A.D. 45 between representatives from the church of Antioch, led by Barnabas and Paul, and the leaders of the church in Jerusalem to discuss problems arising from the increasing influx of Gentile converts to Christ.                       Acts 15.

Deacon (Gk. diakonos, “servant”).  An order of ministry whose functions were not clearly defined in the NT period.  One woman is called a deaconess.

Phil 1:1; 1 Tm 3:8–13; Acts 6:2–6; Rom 16:1.

Dedication, Feast of.  An eight-day festival, originally to celebrate the winter solstice but later to commemorate the reconsecration of the Jerusalem  Temple by Judas Maccabeus in 164 B.C., exactly three years after its defilement by Antiochus Epiphanes.  Also called the Feast of Lights from the special illuminations in private houses for the event.

1 Mc 1:54,59; 4:36–39; 2 Mc 2:9,18; 10:6; Jn 10:22, 36.

Disciple.  One who learns a way of life from another by following his teaching and especially by being in his company.  Applied in particular to the Twelve, and used of followers of Jesus in the Acts.  It is not, however, used in the Epistles.

Mt 10:1–2; Lk 9:57–62; Acts 6:1; 9:19.

Dispersion, The.  Jews scattered in the Gentile world; used metaphorically of Christians scattered in this world.                                                             Jn 7:35; Jas 1:1; 1 Pt 1:1.

Divination.  The attempt to gain knowledge of events that are distant in time or space and which cannot be gained by usual or normal methods.  Most forms of it are condemned in the Bible.  The diviner may go into a trance or he may use mechanical means (sand, livers, sticks), he may have a dream, or he may consult the stars.

Ez 21:21; Dt 18:11; Lv 19:26; Acts 16:16.                                    See also Magic, sec. 4.

Drink Offering (Libation).  This accompanied the cereal-offering in the Temple to acknowledge God as the provider of basic food and drink.

Ex 29:38–42; Lv 23:13; Nm 8:10.

Elder.  One in a community invested with authority on grounds of seniority of age or experience.  The elders of Israel were influential both locally and nationally.  The members of the Sanhedrin were called elders.

      The local Christian churches were ruled by a group of elders, sometimes called bishops, on the Jewish model.  Sometimes one elder was singled out as the “ruler.”

Ex 3:16; 12:21; Nm 11:16; Acts 11:30; 14:23; 15:2-23; Ti 5:7; 1 Pt 5:1; 3 Jn 1.

See Bishop, sec. 4.

Ephod.  An upper garment worn by the high priest, being one of the six sacred vestments he was required to wear in worship.  It was elaborate in color and design while that worn by ordinary priests was much simpler.                                    Ex 28:4–9; 1 Sm 22:18.

Epicureans.  Philosophers who followed the teaching of Epicurus (341–270 B.C.).  Paul came across Epicureans in Athens.  They sought happiness through tranquil detachment.

Acts 17:18

Essenes.  A Jewish sect not mentioned in the Bible which arose in the second century B.C. as a protest against both Greek influence in Judaism and carelessness in religious observance among Jews.  It is possible that the writers of what we call the Dead Sea Scrolls were of this sect.                                                               See Dead Sea Scrolls, sec. 1.

Evangelist.  One called to proclaim the evangel, the good news of Jesus.

Acts 21:8; Eph 4:11; 2 Tm 4:5.

Fasting.  Abstaining from food and drink for a religious purpose to express grief, penitence, devotion, and to seek guidance or help.  There was an annual Jewish fast on the Day of Atonement and some Pharisees fasted twice weekly.  Forty-day fasts are recorded for Moses, Elijah, and Jesus.                                                               Mt 4:2; 6:16–17; 9:14–15.

Feasts, Festivals.  The law of Moses required every male to attend at the sanctuary in Jerusalem at three annual feasts – Passover, (Unleavened Bread); Weeks (Harvest, Firstfruits, Pentecost); Booths (Tabernacles, Ingathering).  Further there were the festivals of Purim and Dedication, which were later additions.  The weekly Sabbath, the Day of the Blowing of Trumpets and the Day of Atonement were also seen as feasts to the Lord.  Each feast is treated separately.

Firstborn.  God had the prior claim to the firstborn of both animals and men, since he is Creator.  Further, by the deliverance from the last plague in Egypt of the firstborn, God had established a special claim upon the firstborn in Israel.

Ex 12:12–13, 23, 29; 13:2, 13, 15; 34:19–20; Lv 27:26.

Freewill Offering.  See Peace Offering, sec. 4.

Gentile.  Name given by Jews for a non-Jew.  The admission of Gentiles into the early church began with the conversion of Cornelius.                              Acts 10:28, 45; 11:18.

God-fearer.  Name given by Jews to those Gentiles who attended the synagogue and observed some Jewish practices.  They were not converts since they were not circumcised.

Acts 10:2, 22; 13:16, 26, 43, 50; 16:14; 17:4, 17; 18:7.             See Proselyte, sec. 4.

Guilt Offering.  See Sin and Guilt Offerings, sec. 4.

Herodians.  Jewish supporters of Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea from 4 B.C.  They were usually also Sadducees and hostile to Jesus.                                  Mk 3:6; 12:13.

High Places.  Localities, usually on the top of hills and near towns, used for the worship of a deity.  The Canaanites used them; on entering Canaan the Israelites were told to destroy them. Later the prophets condemned the high places where Israelites joined in the worship of Baal.                                                                                           Nm 33:52; Ez 6:3.

High Priest.  The supreme representative of Israel before their God.  His duties were the oversight of the Temple and its worship.  He could offer sacrifices on any day but he had particular responsibility on the Day of Atonement, when he alone entered the holy of holies.  He also presided over the Sanhedrin.  His special dress was: a square golden breast-piece; an embroidered ephod; the blue robe of the ephod, and the linen miter.  He was set apart to the office by the pouring of oil upon his head and, although he was supposed to be in office for life, he could be removed by the civil authority.

Ex 29; Lv 4:3, 5, 16; 21:16, 23; 2 Kgs 12:7f; Mt 26:57; Acts 5:21.

Holocaust.  See Burnt Offering, sec. 4.

Hymns.  In the Jerusalem Temple psalms were sung; the Hebrew title of the Book of Psalms is “Songs of Praise,” even though not all are actually poems of praise.  Along with psalms of praise and thanksgiving there are psalms of lament and entrance liturgies.  In the apostolic church not only psalms but also “spiritual songs” were sung, along with canticles and doxologies.

2 Chr 7:6; Neh 12:8; 1 Cor 14:15; 26; Lk 1:46–55; 68-79; 2:29–32; 1 Tm 6:15–16.

Idols.  Both Israel and the early church faced a context in which idolatry was commonplace.  Israel faced the religion of Canaan and the church that of the Roman Empire.  In the pre-exilic period, the temptation for Israel was to capitulate to the use of graven and molten images, pillars, the asherah and teraphim: in other words to act as did the Canaanites.  They knew that the second commandment forbade all such capitulation and that their God could not be represented by an idol.

      After the Exile, the tendency to idolatry was halted and images were seen as deceitful and demonic.  This was the position taken up by the apostles concerning the idolatry of the Greek and Roman cities.

Ex 20:2–5; Dt 4:15-24; Acts 17:29; Jgs 8:24–27; 17:1–18:31; Eph 5:5.

See Abomination of Desolation; Ashtaroth; Baal; Calf, golden; Chemosh; Pillar, all in sec. 4.

Incense.  Fragrant substances such as gums and spices burned in the ritual of Israelite worship.  The Temple had an altar of incense on which each morning the high priest burned incense.  The ingredients were equal proportions of stacte or opobalsamum, onycha, galbanum, and pure frankincense, tempered with salt.  Incense symbolized the offering of prayer to God.

Ex 25:6; 30:1–10; 35:8, 28; 37:9; Nm 16:46–47; Ps 141:2; Lv 16:12–13.

Lampstand.  In the Tabernacle there stood an elaborate golden lampstand with six branches and seven lights: Solomon’s Temple had ten such lamps.  They burned olive oil.

Ex 25:31–40; 37:23; 1 Kgs 7:49.

Levites.  The descendants of Levi (son of Jacob) whose menfolk had the responsibility of the care of the Tabernacle and, later, of assisting the priests in the Temple.  In David’s reign they were divided into four classes: (1) assistants to the priests in the sanctuary; (2) judges and scribes; (3) gatekeepers; (4) musicians.

Ex 32:26–29; Nm 3:44f; 1 Chr 24–26; 2 Chr 11:13–15.

Libation.  See Drink Offering, sec. 4.

Lord’s Day.  The first day of the week when Christians met to celebrate the Resurrection and for worship.  Now called Sunday.                                                               Rv 1:10.

Lord’s Supper.  The oldest name for what is the sacrificial, thanksgiving meal of Christians.  It commemorates the atoning death of Christ.

1 Cor 11:20; Lk 22:19; Mt 26:28; Mk 14:24.

Lots.  Stones or inscribed tablets were put into a vessel and, after being shaken, were drawn out or cast forth, after prayer to God had been offered.  Thus it was a way of God making known his will to his trusting people.            Jos 14:2; 18:6; Prv 16:33; Acts 1:23–26.

Magic.  The strong prohibitions of the Law of Moses against magic and sorcery reveal how widespread they were, not only in Canaan but also in Egypt and Assyria.  Magic was closely associated with religion and practiced by educated priests.  Black magic sought to produce evil results through curses and spells while white magic sought to undo the effects of black magic or to use occult forces for the good of a person.  Israel was often under pressure to adopt magic or sorcery; Jezebel practiced sorcery.

Lv 19:26; 20:27; Dt 18:10–14; Ex 7:11, 22; 8:7, 18–19; 2 Kgs 9:22; Ez 13:17–13; Acts 8:9, 11.

Nazirite.  A person specially consecrated to God either for life or for a limited period.  No alcoholic drink could be taken and the hair must not be cut.  Samson and John the Baptist were consecrated for life and Paul for a short period.

Nm 6:1–21; Jgs 13:4–5; 1 Mc 3:49; Lk 1:15; Acts 21:20–26.

Oath.  A solemn appeal to God to attest the making of a binding promise or the truth of a statement made.  Therefore to break or violate it was an offense against God himself.

Gn 21:23, 31; 31:53; Ex 20:7; Lv 19:12; Mt 5:33–37; Gal 1:20; Heb 6:16.

Offerings.  Sacrifices and oblations of many kinds, both public and private, were a marked feature of Israelite worship.  There were drink, cereal, and animal offerings.  Libations (drink offerings) were never offered alone.  Animal sacrifices were (1) the burnt offering (holocaust); (2) the sin and guilt offerings; and (3) the peace offering (of three types: thank, votive, and freewill).                                                                                       Lv 1–7.

See Drink, Cereal, Burnt, Sin, and Peace Offerings, all in sec. 4.

Passover (Unleavened Bread).  The festival of Passover took place the evening before the fourteenth day of Nisan.  Each family was required to offer the sacrifice of a lamb to remember the first such sacrifice: this took place just before the Lord rescued his people from Egypt.  The blood of the lamb was sprinkled on the door posts and lintels of the Hebrew houses and seeing this God passed over them and only visited the (Egyptian) houses where no sacrificial blood was to be found.  His visit was to slay the firstborn son.

      Bread made in haste and without yeast – thus unleavened – was eaten at the Passover meal and all through the following week.  This was a reminder of the hurried preparations of the Israelites in leaving Egypt.  All Jews were expected to attend Jerusalem for this festival.                                                                                    Ex 12; Josh 5:10–12; Mk 14:1–2.

Peace Offering.  A sacrifice of thanksgiving to God of which three kinds are distinguished.  (1) The thank offering for unexpected and unmerited blessings; (2) the votive offering in payment of a vow; and (3) the freewill offering, an expression of love for God.  Any animal normally used in other sacrifices could be used, but the offering of birds was not permitted.  Its fat was burnt on the altar, the breast and shoulder went to the priests, and the rest was consumed as a thanksgiving meal by the offerer and his family or friends in the sanctuary.

Lv 3; 7:11f.

Pentecost.  See Weeks, Feast of, sec. 4.

Pharisee.  (Aram, “the separated one”).  A Jew who is set apart to obey the Law in wholehearted commitment and rigor.  His temptation was to make the Law an end in itself and so lose sight of the more important relationship with God, the giver of the Law.

Mt 23; Lk 13:31; Acts 5:34; 23:6–9.

Phylactery.  Two small leather cases, one tied to the left arm and facing the heart, and the other to the forehead of every adult Jew at morning prayer except on the Sabbath.  Inside were four essential passages of the Law.  The custom derives from Dt 6:8.

Ex 13:1–10; 13:11–13; Dt 6:4–9; 11:13–21; Mt 23:5.

Pilgrimage.  A journey to a sacred place for a religious motive.  Thus Abraham went to Mount Moriah, and adult Jews were required to travel to the Temple for the statutory festivals.                                                            Gn 22:1–4; Ex 23:14–17; Lk 2:41–42.

Pillar.  Apart from their use in architecture, pillars served as memorials of people, covenants, and events as well as marking sacred sites.  However, in Canaanite religion the pillars at shrines were venerated, so that the Israelites were commanded to destroy them.

Gn 28:18–22; 31:45–54; 35:20; Ex 23:24; Dt 16:22; Jos 4:1–9; 24:26–27.

Preparation, Day of.  The day preceding the Sabbath or the Passover; thus a day of preparation for the feast.                        Mt 27:62; Mk 15:42; Lk 23:54; Jn 19:14, 31, 42.

Presbyter.  See Elder, sec. 4.

Priest.  An authorized minister of God serving in the sanctuary.  The Law required a sanctuary and a priesthood, and Aaron and his sons became that priesthood.  Their basic duties were to minister in the sanctuary before the Lord, to teach the people the Law, and to inquire the divine will by Urim and Thummim.  Their dress included short breeches; a coat fitting closely to the body, woven in one piece; and a cap shaped like a cup.  All were made of white linen.  Unlike the high priest the ordinary priest was not required to wear an ephod.

Ex 28:1,30; 40:12–15; Nm 16:40; 17:1ff; 18:1–8; Lk 1:5, 9.

See Ephod; Urim and Thummim, sec. 4.

Prophet.  One who announces the word and will of God.  The OT prophet did not inherit his office like the priest; he was specially called and empowered by God and then given the divine word.  His teaching was always in harmony with that of the Law and was often accredited by signs and by fulfillment of predictions.  Some of the prophets wrote down their oracles while the oracles of others were collected by disciples.  John the Baptist was the last of the classic OT prophets.  The NT prophets only addressed the churches and were individuals with a special endowment of the Holy Spirit.  In both OT and NT times, false prophets appeared.                        Dt 18:18–19; Is 6; Jer 23:16–32;1 Cor 12:28; Acts 21:9.

See Prophets, Former and Latter, sec. 1.

Prophetess.  A female prophet.  In the OT we read of Miriam, Deborah, and Huldah; in the NT of the four virgin daughters of Philip.

Ex 15:20–21; Nm 12:2; Jgs 4:4; 2 Kgs 22:12–20; Acts 21:9

Proselyte.  A Gentile (pagan) converted to Judaism and brought into the Jewish people by circumcision, baptism, and the offering of a sacrifice at the Temple.

Mt 23:15; Acts 2:11; 6:5; 13:43.

Psalms.  Hymns of praise, prayer, and lament found in the book of Psalms and used both by Jews and Christians in corporate worship and private devotion.

See Psalms, Book of, sec. 1

Purification.  The Mosaic law provided for four types of purification from (ritual) uncleanness – due to contact with a corpse or carcass, having suffered a bodily discharge, after childbirth, and after leprosy.             Nm 19; Lv 15; Lv 12:8; Lk 2:21–14; Lv 3,14.

See Clean and unclean, sec. 4.

Purim, Feast of.  Held on the 14 and 15 of the month Adar (February-March) to celebrate the deliverance of the Jewish exiles in Persia from the massacre planned by Haman.

Est 9:20–28; 2 Mc 15:36.

Rabbi (Heb “my master”).  A term of respect used by Jews of their instructors in faith and morals.                                                                         Mt 23:7–8; Jn 1:38.

Sabbath.  The day of rest in order to praise God.  Arising from God’s own example in his creation and made part of the moral law by its place in the Ten Commandments, the Sabbath was a sacred weekly festival for the Israelites.  There were tendencies at one extreme to disregard it and at the other to make it the subject of minute, legalistic rules.

Gn 2:1–3; Ex 20:8–11; Dt 5:12–15; Mk 2:23–28.                                   See Sabbath, sec. 6.

Sacrifices.  See Offerings, sec. 4.

Sadducees (from Zadok, high priest in king David’s reign).  A small Jewish party of educated and generally wealthy men, belonging to priestly families.  They held to the letter of Scripture and denied both the future resurrection of the dead and the existence of angels.  Though they had fundamental disagreements with the Pharisees, they joined them to oppose Jesus, their common enemy.                                          Mt 22:23–33; Acts 5:17; 23:6–10.

Samaritans.  Originally persons living in the old northern kingdom of Israel.  Later it was used of inhabitants of central Palestine who were not of pure Israelite stock but who held to the Torah and looked for the coming Messiah.

2 Kgs 17:24f; Ezr 4:1–23; 2 Mc 6:2; Lk 17:11,16; Jn 4:4ff; Acts 8:5–6.

Sanhedrin.  The highest assembly or council of the Jews, comprising seventy-one members.  In the time of Jesus it met twice weekly in Jerusalem and had both political and religious functions.                                                            Mt 26:59; Acts 5:21, 27; 23:1.

Scribes.  Official Jewish interpreters of the Bible, especially the Torah, and sometimes called “lawyers.”  A man became a scribe at the age of forty after long years of study, and attached to him was a band of disciples.  Most scribes belonged to the Pharisees and some were in the Sanhedrin.

1 Mc 7:12; 2 Mc 6:18; Mt 21:15; 23:13f; Acts 4:6; 6:12; 23:9.

Sects (Jewish).  Within Judaism in Palestine in the time of Jesus there were several specific groups, who believed that they rightly expressed what Judaism was all about.

See Essenes, Pharisee, Sadducees, Scribes, and Zealot, sec. 4.

Sin and Guilt Offerings.  These may be distinguished in that the former relates chiefly to offences against God directly while the latter relates to offences against human beings.  For the sin offering, a bullock or heifer, a male lamb, a dove, or a pigeon could be slaughtered; for the guilt offering, a ram was normally required.  No part of either of these offerings was eaten by those who offered them.                                                              Lv 4–7.

Stoics.  Disciples of Zeno (336–264 B.C.) who held that within each person is a breath of Universal Reason.  Each person must follow this Reason and not be led by passion; wisdom is submission to fate.  Paul encountered Stoics in Athens.                                 Acts 17:18.

Synagogue.  A Jewish house of prayer, consisting of a hall in which there was a sacred cupboard containing scrolls of the Law and Prophets.  The leader was a local layman, chosen by the local men.  Used for day-school and on the Sabbath for worship.  Paul began his missionary work in them.                                                  Lk 4:16ff; Acts 17:10–12.

Tabernacles, Feast of.  See Booths, Feast of, sec. 4.

Tammuz.  A deity of the Babylonians, who gave his name to the fourth month of the Semitic ritual year.                                                                                         &